Ethnic Identity, Thwarted Belongingness, and Perceived Burdensomeness Among Latinx and Black Adolescents in the United States
Publication: Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice
Abstract
Objective
Ethnic identity formation is one of the most important tasks of adolescence. There is limited information about ethnic identity and interpersonal factors associated with suicide ideation and their impact on mental health and wellbeing among Latinx and Black adolescents. This study examines ethnic identity, thwarted belongingness (TB), and perceived burdensomeness (PB) among Latinx and Black adolescents.
Methods
Latinx and Black adolescents were recruited from community agencies and completed self‐reports about interpersonal factors, ethnic identity, and demographics. Linear multiple regression models were used to evaluate the association between ethnic identity (MEIM composite score), TB, and PB, controlling for gender, age, ethnicity, income, country of birth, and language.
Results
Stronger ethnic identity was associated with lower TB but not PB. TB continued to be significant after adjusting the model. In this adjusted model, higher‐income was associated with higher TB and PB. In addition, speaking Spanish was associated with lower PB among Latinx youth.
Conclusions
The association between ethnic identity and TB suggests an opportunity for suicide prevention. Strengthening ethnic identity may reduce TB among Latinx and Black adolescents and, in turn, may lower suicide ideation. Ethnic identity interventions are universally available in schools, which makes the potential to use them readily accessible for adolescents, especially those with limited access to specialized mental health interventions and services.
Highlights
•
We examined the relationship between ethnic identity and interpersonal factors (i.e., thwarted belongingness [TB] and perceived burdensomeness [PB]) associated with suicide ideation among Latinx and Black adolescents using multiple regression models.
•
A strong ethnic identity was associated with lower TB but not PB.
•
Higher income was linked to higher TB and PB, and Spanish as the preferred language was associated with lower feelings of PB among Latinx adolescents
•
Our results have implications for research and practice and the application of ethnic identity—as a first approximation—in considering other factors that may be relevant for suicide ideation prevention and management among Latinx and Black adolescents.
The question “Who am I?” is central to identity formation during adolescence and is one of the most important adolescent developmental tasks (1, 2). Ethnic identity, defined as the degree of belongingness to your own ethnic group (3), is part of identity formation and adolescents' understanding of their sense of self (4). For ethnoracially minoritized adolescents, a strong or secure sense of ethnic identity positively impacts their psychosocial well‐being, including their self‐esteem and connections to family and peers (5, 6). We use the term ethnoracially minoritized adolescents to indicate that minority is not inherent to these adolescents but rather an active process of marginalization through socioeconomic and political processes that perpetuate systems of power and oppression (7). Studies show that ethnic identity is a protective factor for suicide ideation. For example, Cheref et al. (8) found that ethnic identity moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination, anxiety symptoms, and suicide ideation among Hispanic emerging adults. Furthermore, ethnic identity moderated the relationship between depression and suicide ideation, and the strength of this relationship was greater for African American college students with low levels of ethnic identity (9).
Ethnic identity constructs, such as belongingness (feeling connected and part of a group) and self‐esteem, are also components of the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (IPTS, (10)). The IPTS provides a significant yet underexplored framework for understanding ethnic identity in relation to interpersonal factors associated with suicidal ideation. IPTS indicates that feelings of thwarted belongingness (TB) and perceived burdensomeness (PB; self‐esteem is a dimension of burdensomeness) lead to an increased likelihood of suicide ideation (10, 11). Based on IPTS, a third dimension, the capability to die, which is acquired through exposure to painful and provocative experiences, needs to be present for individuals to move from ideation to suicide attempts. Ideation‐to‐action theories, such as IPTS, suggest that ideation is a prerequisite for suicide attempts. Suicide ideation is precipitated by high TB and PB. According to the theory, TB and PB can be addressed and modified with interventions (10). Therefore, exploring these constructs may reveal potential targets for adolescent suicide interventions. Several studies examining the IPTS in Latinx and Black adolescents indicate the occurrence of TB and PB. However, their specific contributions to the risk of suicidal ideation remain mixed. For example, Gulbas et al. (12) found strong support for both TB and PB among female Latina adolescents with histories of suicide behaviors. Yet, Vélez‐Grau et al. (13) found that only TB, not PB, was significantly associated with suicide ideation—beyond depression symptoms—among Latinx and Black adolescents. Similarly, a sense of belongingness was the most important construct associated with suicide ideation among a nationally representative sample of US Latinx adolescents (14). Other studies with adolescents and college students have found PB is the most relevant factor in suicide ideation. Buitron et al. (15) found PB, not TB, mediated the relationship between interpersonal stress (e.g., interpersonal conflict with parents, romantic break‐ups) and suicide ideation among adolescents, and Hill and Pettit (16) found that PB, but not TB, meditated the association between sexual orientation and suicide ideation among sexual minority youths. These studies evidence the need to continue examining the role of these interpersonal factors on suicide ideation among ethnoracially minoritized adolescents.
Scant literature about ethnic identity, interpersonal factors, and suicide ideation comes from studies with emerging adults and adults. For example, a study with Latinx college students (mean age 20.1, SD = 1.8) found that PB mediated the relationship between ethnic identity and suicide risk at higher levels of TB (17), highlighting the critical yet unexplored relationship between ethnic identity, the interplay of TB and PB, and their impact on suicide ideation. Kaslow et al. (18) found that African American adults (mean age 32.8, SD = 10.8) with histories of suicide attempts reported lower levels of ethnic identity compared with those without histories of suicide attempts. Importantly, Wester et al. (19) found that in a sample of high school students (N = 1081; mean age 15.64, SD = 1.2), PB was associated with suicide ideation among students of all ethnic identity groups; however, TB was a predictor of suicide desire only for Black adolescents, suggesting that TB and PB may differ across ethnic groups. In summary, these studies indicate a relationship between ethnic identity, interpersonal factors, and suicide ideation; however, their relationship is inconclusive, particularly among adolescents.
Given that suicide ideation has increased over the past decade for Latinx and Black adolescents (20) and that suicide ideation often precedes suicide attempts (21), efforts to understand modifiable factors associated with suicide ideation risk are of utmost importance. Notably, ethnic identity, a crucial sociocultural aspect of adolescent development, particularly relevant to ethnoracially minoritized adolescents, can be strengthened with interventions to improve mental health, including higher self‐esteem, lower depressive symptoms, and increased academic performance (5, 6, 22). Thus, understanding the relationship between ethnic identity and interpersonal factors associated with suicide ideation among Latinx and Black adolescents may provide a path to understanding factors that can be targeted as a suicide upstream approach (before the onset of suicide behaviors) with these adolescents.
Current Study
In this study, we use Latinx as a gender‐non‐confirming term for adolescents whose ancestry is from Latin America. We use the term Black to include adolescents who self‐identify their race as non‐Latinx Black. We recognize that Latinx and Black adolescents in the United States have different cultures and sociopolitical experiences. Yet, we focused on both Latinx and Black adolescents because they also share intersecting forms of oppression due to their ethnic identity and previous studies reported similar experiences regarding belongingness and burdensomeness (13). Ethnic identity significantly influences how Latinx and Black individuals perceive themselves (23). Our study focuses on ethnic identity and the IPTS constructs of TB and PB. Although ethnic identity and the constructs of TB and PB are distinct, they are interconnected. We focus on TB and PB (as outcomes) for several reasons: (1) TB and PB can be addressed in treatment, and thus, they are modifiable with target interventions (10, 11), (2) ethnic identity involves a sense of belongingness and sense of value and self‐esteem (cf. burdensomeness), and (3) ethnic identity can provide a strong sense of belongingness and self‐esteem, positively impacting the wellbeing and mental health of adolescents. Thus, understanding whether ethnic identity affects these constructs may be a first step in connecting the constructs of TB and PB to the experiences of Latinx and Black adolescents and understanding how to incorporate ethnic identity in suicide prevention with these adolescents. We hypothesized that adolescents with a stronger sense of ethnic identity would report lower TB and PB.
METHOD
Participants
A nonclinical sample of Latinx and Black adolescents ages 13–17 (N = 61) were recruited from community‐based organizations in New York City as part of a supplemental cross‐sectional and exploratory study to understand interpersonal factors (TB and PB) among Latinx and Black adolescents. Data were collected between 2021 and 2022. Inclusion criteria included: (1) self‐identifying as Latinx or Black ethnicity, (2) being between 13 and 17 years old, (3) reporting a score of <10 on the Patient Health Questionnaire‐Adolescent (PHQ‐A; (24)), and (4) speaking English or Spanish. Participants who preferred Spanish were given Spanish questionnaires. Staff members from the participating community organizations identified and referred participants. Informed consent was obtained from parents and adolescents. Participants received a $20 gift card for their participation. The New York University Institutional Review Board approved this study.
Measures
Ethnic Identity
The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; (3, 25, 26)) a 12‐item scale, was used. Items such as “I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means to me” and “I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group” are answered on a 4‐point scale (strongly disagree–strongly agree; composite score range = 12–48), with higher scores indicating a stronger, more secure ethnic identity. In this study, MEIM items show good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.88). The 12‐item MEIM was validated in adolescents of various ethnic and racial groups (3, 25).
Perceived Burdensomeness
The first six items (1–6) from the interpersonal needs questionnaire (INQ‐15; (27)) measured participants' beliefs about the extent to which they feel like a burden to others (i.e., “These days, the people in my life would be better off if I were not here.”). Respondents were asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement with each item on a 1–7 scale (1 = not at all true for me; 7 = very true for me). An average score of the responses to the PB items was computed, with higher scores indicating higher PB. The INQ‐15 showed good internal consistency for PB (0.78) among Spanish adolescents aged 12–19 (28). In this sample, values ranged from 1 to 6 with a mean of 1.52 (SD = 0.97). Internal consistency was excellent (Cronbach's α = 0.91).
Thwarted Belongingness
Nine items (7–15) of the interpersonal needs questionnaire (INQ‐15) were used. Participants were asked about their beliefs about how they feel connected to others (i.e., These days, I feel like I belong) and indicated agreement or disagreement with each item on a 1–7 scale (1 = not at all true for me; 7 = very true for me). Items 7, 8, 10, 13, 14, and 15 were reverse coded. An average score of the responses to the TB items was computed, with higher scores indicating higher TB. The INQ‐15 showed good internal consistency for TB (0.88) among Spanish adolescents aged 12–19 (28). In this sample, values ranged from 1 to 5 with a mean of 2.64 (SD = 0.98). Internal consistency was acceptable (Cronbach's α = 0.71).
We also collected relevant sociodemographic characteristics. We used the MEIM question “my ethnicity is” to assess adolescents' ethnicity group membership (Asian or Asian American, including Chinese, Japanese, and others; Black or African American; Hispanic or Latino, including Mexican American, Central American, and others; White, Caucasian, Anglo, European American; not Hispanic; American Indian/Native American; Mixed; Parents are from two different groups; Other). Individuals could check more than one. We identified three groups based on the adolescent's answers: Latinx, Black, and Afro‐Latinx. We are aware that Latinx and Black adolescents are not monolithic groups, yet given the small sample, we could not use categories such as Afro‐Latinx (n = 1), Indigenous Latinx (n = 1), and mixed‐race Black‐White (n = 2) for adolescents who checked more than one ethnicity to examine within group differences.
Demographics
Information about age (continuous) and gender identity (man, woman, non‐binary, questioning, other, prefer not to disclose) was collected. In our sample, only one adolescent self‐identified as “other: Transgender”. We also collected information about country of birth (US‐born, other countries) and income (i.e., range of 13 categories for family's yearly income starting 1 = no income, 13 = $100 k, in increments of 5000 from 10,000 to 49,999 and increments of $10,000 from 50,000 to $100 k). Finally, preferred language (Spanish = 1; English = 2) was collected. Adolescents were offered to answer the study questionnaires in English or Spanish. Adolescents who preferred answering the study questionnaires in Spanish were classified as Spanish as their preferred language (n = 7), and adolescents who preferred answering the surveys in English were classified as English as their preferred language (n = 38). All adolescents who preferred Spanish also self‐identified as Latinx.
Analysis
First, we examined bivariate relations among the ethnic identity and interpersonal factors of suicide TB and PB (Table 1). Second, we used linear multiple regression models to evaluate the association between ethnic identity (MEIM composite score) as an independent variable and TB and PB as separate dependent variables. For each, we first fit an unadjusted model and then an adjusted model controlling for gender, age, ethnicity, language, income, and country or origin. Analyses were conducted in SPSS Version 29. We report confidence intervals for all regression coefficients, and statistical significance is determined by a point estimate with a 95% confidence interval that does not include zero (29).
| Measure | 1 | 2 | 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Ethnic identitya | 1 | ||
| 2 | TB | −0.261* | 1 | |
| 3 | PB | 0.1 | 0.323* | 1 |
| 4 | Latinxb | −0.084 | 0.092 | −0.167 |
| 5 | Age | −0.012 | −0.101 | 0.212 |
| 6 | Malec | 0.18 | 0.04 | 0.247 |
| 7 | Non‐US bornd | −0.2 | 0.214 | −0.081 |
| 8 | Income | 0.01 | 0.265* | 0.289* |
| 9 | Lg:Spanishe | −0.128 | −0.048 | −0.473** |
a
Measured by Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure. TB = thwarted belongingness. PB = perceived burdensomeness.
b
Compared to Black.
c
Compared to female.
d
Compared to US born.
e
Compared to English language.
**p < 0.01, *p < 0.05.
RESULTS
Sample characteristics are described in Table 2. Participants mean age was 15.1 (SD = 1.4). The majority of participants were male (72.1%) and self‐identified as Latinx (75.4%).
| Ethnicity | Latinx (n = 45) | Black (n = 16) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable | Valid N | Mean | SD | Valid N | Mean | SD |
| MEIM (ethnic indentity) | 45 | 3.28 | 0.50 | 16 | 3.13 | 0.48 |
| Income | 44 | 5.66 | 4.10 | 16 | 7.00 | 3.95 |
| Age | 45 | 15.1 | 1.4 | 16 | 15.0 | 1.4 |
| Thwarted belongingness | 45 | 2.59 | 0.98 | 16 | 2.80 | 0.99 |
| Perceived burdensomeness | 45 | 1.61 | 1.05 | 16 | 1.28 | 0.63 |
| Variable | Valid N | Frequency | % | Valid N | Frequency | % |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Preferred language | ||||||
| English | 45 | 38 | 84.4 | 16 | 16 | 100.0 |
| Spanish | 45 | 7 | 15.6 | 16 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Gender identity | ||||||
| Transgender | 45 | 1 | 2.2 | 16 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Female | 45 | 13 | 28.9 | 16 | 3 | 18.8 |
| Male | 45 | 31 | 68.9 | 16 | 13 | 81.3 |
| Country of birth | ||||||
| Dominican Republic | 45 | 8 | 17.8 | 16 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Ecuador | 45 | 2 | 4.4 | 16 | 0 | 0.0 |
| Peru | 45 | 1 | 2.2 | 16 | 0 | 0.0 |
| USA | 45 | 34 | 75.6 | 16 | 16 | 100.0 |
a
MEIM, Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure; SD, standard deviation.
Black adolescents reported a slightly higher mean of TB (2.80, SD = 0.99) compared with Latinx adolescents (2.59, SD = 0.98). However, the difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.53). Latinx adolescents reported a slightly stronger sense of ethnic identity (3.28, SD = 0.50) compared to Black adolescents (3.13, SD = 0.48), but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.30).
Ethnic Identity (MEIM) and TB
The total MEIM score was significantly associated with TB in an unadjusted model. Individuals with higher total MEIM scores (i.e., stronger ethnic identity) reported significantly lower levels of TB (b = −0.52, 95% CI = [−1.03, −0.14], p = 0.044). This effect remains apparent even when controlling for sociodemographic factors of gender, age, ethnicity, country of origin, income, and language. In this adjusted model, individuals with higher total MEIM scores have lower expected levels of TB (b = −0.56, 95% CI = [−1.09, −0.03], p = 0.039). In addition, higher income was associated with higher TB (b = 0.01, 95% CI = [0.001, 0.020], p = 0.043). See Table 3 for all regression results.
| Predictors | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coef. | 95% CI | p‐value | Std. coef. | Coef. | 95% CI | p‐value | Std. coef. | |
| Intercept | 4.33 | 2.67, 6.00 | <0.001 | ‐ | 5.15 | −0.86, 9.43 | 0.019 | ‐ |
| MEIM | −0.52 | −1.03, −0.14 | 0.044 | −0.26 | −0.56 | −1.09, −0.03 | 0.039 | −0.28 |
| Income | 0.01 | 0.00, 0.02 | 0.043 | 0.27 | ||||
| Age | −0.10 | −0.30, 0.09 | 0.305 | −0.14 | ||||
| Non‐US bornb | 0.39 | −0.33, 1.12 | 0.283 | 0.16 | ||||
| Latinxc | 0.14 | −0.44, 0.73 | 0.626 | 0.06 | ||||
| Male genderd | 0.36 | −0.25, 0.96 | 0.244 | 0.16 | ||||
| Preferred Lg:Spanishe | −0.43 | −1.37, 0.51 | 0.362 | −0.13 | ||||
a
CI, confidence interval; MEIM, Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure; TB, thwarted belongingness.
b
Versus US‐born.
c
Versus Black racial‐ethnic identity.
d
Versus female gender identity.
e
Versus English preferred language.
Ethnic Identity (MEIM) and PB
The total MEIM score was not significantly associated with PB (b = 0.197, 95% CI = [−0.32, 0.71], p = 0.445). This result was consistent in both the adjusted and unadjusted models (b = 0.01, 95% CI = [−0.46, 0.47], p = 0.971). In addition, higher income was associated with higher PB (b = 0.01, 95% CI = [0.001, 0.020], p = 0.013), and Spanish as a preferred language was associated with lower PB (b = −1.13, 95% CI = [−1.96, −0.30], p = 0.009) (Table 4).
| Predictors | Unadjusted model | Adjusted model | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coef. | 95% CI | p‐value | Std. coef. | Coef. | 95% CI | p‐value | Std. coef. | |
| Intercept | 0.896 | −0.78, 2.57 | 0.290 | ‐ | 1.76 | −2.01, 5.52 | 0.354 | ‐ |
| MEIM | 0.197 | −0.32, 0.71 | 0.445 | 0.10 | 0.01 | −0.46, 0.47 | 0.971 | 0.00 |
| Income | 0.01 | 0.00, 0.02 | 0.013 | 0.31 | ||||
| Age | 0.06 | −0.11, 0.23 | 0.464 | 0.09 | ||||
| US bornb | 0.15 | −0.49, 0.79 | 0.636 | 0.06 | ||||
| Latinxc | −0.21 | −0.72, 0.31 | 0.426 | −0.09 | ||||
| Male genderd | 0.47 | −0.07, 1.00 | 0.084 | 0.22 | ||||
| Lg:Spanishe | −1.13 | −1.96, −0.30 | 0.009 | −0.36 | ||||
a
CI, confidence interval; MEIM, Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure; PB, perceived burdensomeness.
b
Versus US‐born.
c
Versus Black racial‐ethnic identity.
d
Versus female gender identity.
e
Versus English preferred language.
DISCUSSION
Ethnic identity is one of the many sociocultural aspects relevant to Latinx and Black adolescents, yet it is poorly understood in the suicide context. This study focuses on ethnic identity and its association with TB and PB, precursors of suicide ideation (10, 11). Interestingly, our results suggest that, among a nonclinical sample of Latinx and Black adolescents, a strong ethnic identity was associated with lower TB but not PB. In addition, our study reveals that higher income was linked to higher TB and PB, and Spanish as the preferred language was associated with lower feelings of PB but not TB among Latinx adolescents. Our results have important implications for research and practice and the application of ethnic identity—as a first approximation—in considering other factors that may be relevant for suicide ideation prevention and management among Latinx and Black adolescents.
Regarding the positive association between ethnic identity and TB, our results are consistent with previous studies focusing on adult populations (9). Studies show that TB is a relevant suicide ideation risk factor among Latinx and Black adolescents (14, 30, 31). Indeed, family connectedness (cf. belongingness) to families appears to be the most relevant factor associated with suicide ideation among these adolescents (14), and belongingness to parents and teachers appears to be relevant for suicide attempts (32). Families are important sources of support for Latinx and Black adolescents (33, 34) and are instrumental in instilling cultural values, including a feeling of belonging to a particular ethnic group. In turn, a strong ethnic identity is protective against suicide risk (17). Thus, strengthening these adolescents' sense of ethnic identity to reduce TB may be a plausible suicide prevention strategy to reduce suicide ideation.
An important aspect of our study is that we found no direct relationship between ethnic identity and PB among our sample. These results contrast with several studies on ethnoracially minoritized young adults, which have been shown that exposure to perceived racism and racial microaggressions (based on ethnic and racial identity) increases PB and suicide ideation among Asian college students (35) and African American college students (36). Although the direct effect of ethnic identity on PB is less understood among ethnoracially minoritized adolescents, few studies suggest that aspects of TB may be present in the PB construct. For example, the feeling of not belonging may be experienced as a burden among adolescents (13, 37). This indicates that developmentally and socioculturally, these constructs may differ between ethnoracially minoritized adolescents and young adults.
Our results showed an association between speaking Spanish as a preferred language and lower PB among Latinx adolescents, suggesting the importance of maintaining a strong ethnic identity through preferred language use. These adolescents may be more adept at navigating their daily lives at home with parents who are often first‐generation and speak their native language (i.e., Spanish) and at school, where they speak English with peers. This bilingual ability may reduce their sense of being a burden to others. These sociocultural aspects of TB and PB require further investigation, specifically focusing on comfort level, fluency, bilingualism, and context‐specific language use. These questions are also relevant for Black youth who may speak other languages.
Our study extends the existing literature by identifying a direct link between ethnic identity and TB, a construct associated with suicide ideation among Latinx and Black adolescents. These results suggest that strengthening ethnic identity may be more effective in reducing feelings of TB than PB among Latinx and Black adolescents.
Finally, contrary to results from studies examining income and belongingness among the adult population, we found that higher income was associated with a higher sense of TB. These studies found that adults of higher income feel a strong sense of belongingness to families, neighbors, and friends with whom they share common interests, cultural values, and socioeconomic attributes (38, 39). Although studies about income, belongingness, and burdensomeness among the adolescent population are scarce, we speculate that Latinx and Black adolescents with high income in our sample might live, play, and learn in environments where non‐Latinx White adolescents are the majority, which may lead to feelings of being an outsider; thus, reducing opportunities for meaningful connections that may strengthen ethnic identity. Consequently, they may feel a higher sense of TB and burdensomeness. It is also plausible that these adolescents perceived the need to work harder in these environments than their non‐Latinx White counterparts, a message that may be coming from their families, thus leading to a greater experience of PB to meet these expectations. In turn, this perceived expectation of needing to work harder to achieve may lead to higher reported income. This premise, however, was not tested and needs further investigation.
Implications for Clinical Practice
Given that Latinx and Black adolescents in the United States experience ethnic and racial discrimination and often acculturation stress, it is important to equip these adolescents with skills that increase their sense of worth by developing a strong sense of ethnicity, which in turn will improve their sense of belongingness to their families and society at large. A universal intervention targeting ethnic identity (e.g., Ethnic Identity Project; (5, 6)) among youth demonstrated that increased racial and ethnic identity improved adolescents' sense of belongingness, self‐esteem, and depressive symptoms (5, 6), all risk factors for suicide ideation, and attempts among Latinx and Black adolescents (14, 40, 41, 42). This is extremely important because emerging literature on suicide and sociocultural and structural factors shows the association between racial discrimination, suicide ideation, and depression symptoms (43, 44). Furthermore, cultural assimilation (i.e., the adoption of a dominant culture at the expense of one's own culture) or acculturation stress among ethnoracially minoritized individuals is positively associated with suicide risk (9, 45). Finally, we encourage clinicians working with ethnoracially minoritized adolescents to integrate questions of ethnic identity, culture, and language and how these sociocultural aspects affect TB and PB to comprehensively assess suicide risk among these adolescents.
There are limitations to our study. First, our analysis is cross‐sectional; causality cannot be inferred. Second, we focus on a nonclinical sample of Latinx and Black adolescents, and the number of adolescents who reported suicide ideation—in the absence of depression—was low (n = 2). Thus, we were unable to test the relationship between ethnic identity, TB, PB, and suicide ideation. Third, the study sample is small and heterogeneous, limiting the generalizability of the results. Future studies should test the direct and mediational effects of ethnic identity, TB, and PB on suicide ideation. Finally, results would need to be replicated in longitudinal and/or clinical studies.
CONCLUSION
In a nonclinical sample of Latinx and Black adolescents, strong ethnic identity was associated with low TB (not PB), an indicator of suicide ideation. These findings suggest that strengthening ethnic identity may reduce TB and, in turn, may reduce suicide ideation. Incorporating ethnic identity in the psychiatric assessment and prevention of suicide ideation and as a universal upstream approach to suicide may be valuable and relevant to ethnoracially minoritized adolescents.
Footnotes
The NIMH Diversity Supplement 3R34MH119290‐02S1 funded this study granted to Dr. Vélez‐Grau from NIMH study 5R34MH119290‐03 granted to Dr. Lindsey. Dr. Vélez‐Grau is funded by the NIMH K23MH137405.
We want to thank partnering agencies, the parents, and the adolescents who participated in this study.
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Data available on request due to privacy/ethical restrictions.
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Received: 16 September 2024
Revision received: 15 December 2024
Accepted: 18 December 2024
Published online: 12 March 2025
Authors
Funding Information
National Institute of Mental Health: 3R34MH119290‐02S1, 5R34MH119290‐03, K23MH137405
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