Skip to main content
Full access
Special Articles
Published Online: 30 August 2019

Functional Motor Symptoms in Parkinson’s Disease and Functional Parkinsonism: A Systematic Review

Publication: The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences

Abstract

Objective:

Whereas functional symptoms are common in Parkinson’s disease (PD), a parkinsonian syndrome may occasionally reflect a pure functional disorder (also named functional parkinsonism [FP]). This review aimed to decipher these entities to clarify the link between functional manifestations and PD.

Methods:

Following the PRISMA guidelines, the authors performed a systematic literature search of the PubMed and Science Direct databases for the period 1988 to December 2018 to identify studies of patients with either FP or PD associated with functional neurological symptoms.

Results:

From the 844 articles screened, 22 were retained, including 12 studies of functional neurological symptoms in PD and 16 studies of FP. The studies of functional symptoms in PD included 121 patients—57% were women, and the mean age was 61.3 years. Psychiatric history (mostly depression) and exposure to triggering stressors were frequent: 60% and 82.5%, respectively. The most common symptom was tremor (33.8%), most often located on the side most affected by PD (50%). Studies of FP included a total of 120 patients—62% were women, and the mean age was 50.7 years. The first FP symptoms appeared on average 5 years before diagnosis, with an abrupt onset in half the cases; 67.6% had a psychiatric history, and 46.8% were exposed to triggering stressors, such as physical injury, stress at work, or loss of family or friends.

Conclusions:

Findings suggest a possible relationship between PD and FP. Clinicians should keep in mind the possibility of functional symptoms in PD patients.
Parkinson’s disease (PD) and functional neurological disorders (FNDs) are very common and usually considered as distinct and nonoverlapping disorders. Recent studies showed that functional symptoms and PD co-occur in 1.4%−7% of patients with PD (1, 2). The diagnosis of FND in PD may be challenging, because of the potential overlap of symptoms and clinical signs of FND and PD, notably when patients present with pain, resting tremor, or akinesia (36). Moreover, FND symptoms, which are fluctuating and sensitive to distractibility, may be difficult to distinguish from fluctuations of PD symptoms related to stress or anxiety (5).
Clinical examination is crucial for an accurate diagnosis of both diseases. Some clinical signs are relatively specific of functional parkinsonism (FP) (7) and can be helpful to distinguish FP from PD. In FP, tremor may be present during all phases (rest, posture, and action), with a variability in frequency, an entrainment effect, and a distractibility (5). The characteristics of rigidity in FP tend to resemble those of oppositional paratonia related to frontal lobe dysfunction, and rigidity is diminished by reinforcement maneuvers. There is no bradykinesia but slowness of voluntary movements, with a nonprogressive decrease in amplitude (no decrement), distractibility, and inconstancy (5). There is sometimes an exaggerated discrepancy between the major apparent difficulty in movement initiation and the actual speed of movement execution when eventually performed—during the finger tapping task for example. (See Table S1 in the online supplement to this article for a detailed comparison of PD and FP.)
The identification of underlying PD in FND is crucial, because accurate dopaminergic treatment might significantly improve PD symptoms. In addition, accurate diagnosis of FND in PD is critical, because functional symptoms may lead to significant disability, escalation of antiparkinsonian treatment, requests for alternative therapy (such as deep brain stimulation), and poorer quality of life (2). Moreover, correct identification of FND in PD might improve knowledge about pathophysiology and potential common mechanisms involved in both diseases (8).
A parkinsonian syndrome can occasionally reflect a pure functional disorder—functional parkinsonism. FP represents 1.7%–25% of all functional movement disorders (5, 7, 9). The diagnosis of pure FP involves the elimination of PD as a differential diagnosis and as an associated diagnosis. There is evidence that patients with FP are often misdiagnosed as having PD. An example of such a situation is the high proportion of patients with “scan without evidence of dopaminergic deficit” (SWEDD) enrolled in PD clinical trials (7, 1012). Most of the patients with SWEDD are misdiagnosed as having PD, and a proportion of these patients have FP, which tends to be underdiagnosed (10, 13).
To clarify the link between FND and PD, we analyzed all studies assessing FP or functional neurological symptoms in PD.

Methods

We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) (14) guidelines for the literature search and analysis.

Eligibility Criteria

We included all English-language articles published in peer-reviewed journals that reported original data about case reports or cohorts of PD patients with functional neurological symptoms and patients with FP. The diagnosis of functional symptoms was based on clinical examination and mainly relied on DSM-IV-TR or DSM-5 criteria—and, more specifically, on the Fahn and Williams (15) or Gupta and Lang (16) criteria for FNDs (see Table S2 in the online supplement). Diagnosis of PD was also based on clinical examination, and most studies relied on the UK Parkinson’s Disease Society Brain Bank Clinical Diagnostic Criteria (17).
Studies were excluded if they did not include a description of patients. To ensure an exhaustive review, articles were included even when some data were missing.

Search Strategy

We searched on PubMed and ScienceDirect and attempted to screen all the literature from 1988 (first description of a psychogenic parkinsonism) to December 2018. The following terms were used: (“psychogenic” OR “functional disorder” OR “conversion” OR “hysteria” OR “somatoform”) AND (“Parkinson” OR “parkinsonism”). Relevant studies were identified, and their reference lists were hand-searched.

Study Selection

Two authors (MAA and BG) independently screened for the titles of potentially eligible publications. Some articles were excluded at this stage (see Figure S1 in the online supplement). After review of abstracts and articles, likely inclusions were assessed by MAA and BG, who independently extracted all information on age and gender of patients, symptoms, duration, psychiatric history and identified triggering stressors, imaging data, past treatments, efficacy of treatments, and disability.
In studies about FP, some patients with an initial diagnosis of FP were eventually diagnosed as having an underlying neurodegenerative PD. We classified these patients in the category PD with FND (PD-FND). Patients whom we classified in the FP category are those who had no underlying degenerative parkinsonism.

Results

The initial search strategy yielded 844 articles. After removal of duplicates and review of titles and abstracts and then full text and references, 22 studies were included: 12 studies reported on PD patients with FND (PD-FND), and 16 studies reported on patients with FP. (See Table S2 in the online supplement for detailed information on the diagnostic criteria used in the selected studies.)

Functional Neurological Symptoms in PD (PD-FND)

The 12 studies that reported on PD-FND patients included a total of 121 patients (Table 1). The study samples varied in size, ranging from one to 53 patients. Most studies had small samples. Mean age at examination was 61.3 years (range 37.5–71.2), and 69 women were included (57% of the 121 patients). History of psychiatric disorder was frequent but was not always found. Data about psychiatric history were available for 80 patients, and 48 of them (60%) had a history of a psychiatric disorder. Among these 48 patients, details about psychiatric disorders were available for 15 patients only, depression being the most frequent (N=12/15, 80%). Other psychiatric comorbidities were anxiety, suicidal behavior history, personality disorders, and chronic pain. Stressors were also frequent. Among the 63 patients with available data, a stress factor was identified in 52 (82.5%). Reported stressors included physical injuries, stress at work, or loss of a family member or friend.
TABLE 1. Characteristics of patients and symptoms described in 12 reviewed studies of Parkinson’s disease with functional neurological disorders (PD-FND)a
StudyNAge at evaluation (years)WomenDuration of symptoms (years)FND onset compared with PD diagnosisPsychiatric historyStress factor identifiedNuclear imagingL-dopa equivalenceFND phenotypeSide of FND compared with side most affected by PDComments
N%
Lang et al. (5)13806BeforeDepressionJob-related conflictF-DOPA PET scan abnormal L>RNAHypoesthesia, give-way weakness, gait (dragging leg), tremorIpsilateralImproved with haloperidol 1 mg/day
Gaig et al. (13)15006NAAnxiety, depression, and suicide attemptMarital discord and work incapacityDaT-SCAN (123I) abnormal325 mg/dFunctional parkinsonismNAParkin gene mutation
Benaderette et al. (3)546.22408NADepression, 20%; anxiety, 20%; personality disorder60% total (fall at work and litigation, 40%; disability pension, 20%)DaT-SCAN (123I) abnormal, 100%L-dopa for 2 of 5 at 600 mg/dFunctional parkinsonism, 100%; atypical tremor, 100%NABeneficial effect of L-dopa treatment in 1 of 2; use of EMG-accelerometry to document FND diagnosis
Felicio et al. (6)238.51506NANANADaT-SCAN (99mTC) abnormal, 100%1,000 mg/dFunctional parkinsonism, 100%NANo response to L-dopa treatment in 2 of 2
Onofrj et al. (1)3771.21849NABefore or at the time of PD in 33 (89.2%)NANADaT-SCAN abnormal, 100%424 mg/dParesis, 62%; abnormal posture, 32%; functional parkinsonism, 5%; catatonia, 24%NA 
Baik (34)16511001NADepression100% (son in vegetative state)[18F]-FP-CICT PET abnormalNAGait disturbanceNA 
Pareés et al. (8)1155.4763.75.27Before in five (45.5%); after in four (36.4%); unknown in 2 (18.1)Depression, 27.2%; anxiety, 18.1%NADaT-SCAN (123I) abnormal, 100%NATremor, 63.6%; dystonia, 9%; gait disorder, 27.7%Ipsilateral, 72.7%; contralateral, 9%; symmetrical, 18%Authors proposed that common mechanisms are involved in PD and FND
Umeh et al. (18)237.51503.0NANANADaT-SCAN (123I) abnormal, 100%L-dopa for 1 of 2 at 350 mg/dTremor, 100%Ipsilateral, 100% 
Colosimo (33)16202.0AfterNone100% (stress at work)DaT-SCAN abnormal L>R300 mg/dTremorIpsilateralPD diagnosed 2 years before FND onset
Erro et al. (11)16007.0AfterNoneNoneDaT-SCAN abnormal150 mg/dTremor, hypokinesia, gait disturbanceBilateral worseningL-dopa induced OFF; PD was diagnosed 4 years before FMD onset
Wissel et al. (2)5361.936689.4Before in 14 (26%); at the time of PD in four (8%); after in 30 (57%); unknown in five (9%)Psychiatric history in 67.3% (disorders not specified)Current psychiatric disease (not defined), 84.9%DaT-SCAN (123I) for 31 (58.5%), all abnormal971.9 mg/dAssociation, 60%; gait disorder, 40%; tremor, 40%; dyskinesia, 25%; nonmotor symptoms, 25%; functional parkinsonism, 21%; dystonia, 15%; speech impairment, 11%; myoclonus, 6%Ipsilateral, 40%; contralateral, <5%; symmetrical, 40%; NA, 20%Study compared PD-FND patients to sex-, gender-, and age-matched PD patients
Frasca Polara et al. (4)6393502.8Before in four (66.7%); after in two (33.3%)Depression, 83.3%; anxiety, 33.3%; personality disorder, 16.6%; chronic pain syndrome, 16.6%NADaT-SCAN abnormal, 33.3%; [18F]-FP-CICT abnormal, 66.7%NATremor, 66.6%; hypokinesia, 33.3%; gait disturbance, 33.3%; hypertonia fluctuation, 33.3%Ipsilateral, 83%; symmetrical, 17%
Total12161.369577.8Before or at the time of PD in 61/99 (61.6%)Psychiatric history for 48/80 (60%); depression in 44.4% (12/27)Stress factor identified in 52/63 (82.5%)Available in 99/121, all abnormalIpsilateral in 38/76 (50%); symmetrical in 25/76 (32.9%); contralateral in 13/76 (17.1%)
a
DaT-SCAN=striatal dopamine transporter imaging, FDG-PET=fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography, F-DOPA PET=fluorodopa positron emission tomography, [l8F]-FP-CICT=18fluoropropyl-carbomethoxy-3β-4-iodophenyltropane, 123I=ioflupane, L>R=left>right, NA=not available, OFF=no effect of treatment, symptoms are present, PD=Parkinson’s disease, SPECT=single-photon emission computed tomography, 99mTC=[99mTc]TRODAT-1.
Two of the 12 studies assessed the prevalence of functional overlay in PD (1, 2). The first study included 1,360 patients with neurodegenerative disorders. It found a significantly higher frequency of somatic symptom disorders in PD (7%) and in dementia with Lewy body (12%) than in other neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer’s, multiple-system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy, or frontotemporal dementia, 0%−3%) and also a higher frequency than in populations with psychiatric disorders (1.5%) (1). Among all patients with PD, Wissel et al. (2) calculated that 1.4% had PD-FND.
Little is known about symptom onset. FND preceded the diagnosis or occurred at the same time as PD in a majority of patients (61.6%, N=61/99). Onset was acute for 55% of the patients in Wissel and colleagues’ study (2).
The vast majority of patients with PD-FND described in these studies presented with motor functional symptoms (Table 1). Patients often had more than one phenotype. Indeed, in Wissel and colleagues’ study (2), 60% presented with multiple different functional symptoms. Overall, among all 12 studies, tremor was the most common FND phenotype (N=41, 33.8%), but a large variety of motor functional symptoms were described: FP (N=28), paresis (N=23), gait disorder (N=29), dyskinesia (N=13), abnormal posture (N=12), dystonia (N=9), speech impairment (N=6), myoclonus (N=3), and give-way weakness (N=1). Detailed information was available for 31 patients, all of whom had motor FND: tremor, 45.2% (N=14); and FP, 64.5% (N=20). Two additional studies (N=90 patients) provided information about functional phenotypes, but most of the patients had combined phenotypes, so it was not possible to extract information about the proportion of patients presenting with motor FND (1, 2). In both studies, the motor phenotype was predominant (Table 1). Most of the time, functional symptoms were on the same side as the side most affected by PD, or symmetrical. Data were available for 76 patients, and FND was on the most PD-affected side in 50% (N=38), on the less PD-affected side in 17.1% (N=13), and symmetrical in 32.9% (N=25).
Six studies described patients with FP and found an underlying PD confirmed by striatal dopamine transporter imaging (DaT-SCAN) in 7.1%–66.6% (mean 32.6%) (36, 13, 18). One study specifically compared demographic and clinical features as well as treatments in PD patients with FP to patients matched on age, gender, and disease duration (2). PD patients with FP had a longer delay to PD diagnosis, notably when FP preceded PD symptoms, and they had a greater prevalence of dyskinesia, compared with the matched patients (42% versus 18%). They also had worse depression and anxiety symptoms. PD patients with FP had higher doses of dopaminergic treatment (dopa equivalence, 972 mg versus 741 mg, p=0.029) (2). In general, PD patients with FP had more frequent use of health care and were more often hospitalized.
Authors of all 12 studies proposed dopamine transporter imaging to support the diagnosis of underlying PD. A DaT-SCAN (123ioflupane or [99mTc]TRODAT-1; 93.9%, N=93) or a fluoro-dopa PET (6.1%, N=6) was performed for 81.8% (N=99) of the 121 patients and was abnormal in all of them. Wissel and coauthors (2) showed that use of DaT-SCAN was more frequent in PD-FND patients than in PD patients (58.5% versus 30%, p<0.001). DaT-SCAN proved useful to avoid misdiagnosis of underlying neurodegenerative PD in patients presenting with FP (6, 13, 18). Electrophysiological recording is useful to differentiate functional tremor from PD’s tremor (3).

FP

We included 16 studies with a total of 120 patients with FP (Table 2). Mean age was 50.7 years, and 62.1% (N=72) were women (data about gender were not available for four patients). Mean duration of symptoms was 5.03 years, with an abrupt onset in 50% (N=50), and a progressive onset in 50% (N=50) (data were not available for 20 patients).
TABLE 2. Characteristics of patients with functional parkinsonism (FP) described in 16 reviewed studiesa
StudyNAge at evaluation (years)WomenDuration (years)Onset (%)Psychiatric historyStress factor identifiedFP phenotypeFP diagnosisPositive response to L-dopa treatmentComments
N%Progressiveabrupt
Walters et al. (19)164031000NANADragging right then left leg; rest, action, and intention tremor; atypical gaitClinical diagnosisL-dopa-treatment for 1/1; positive response in 0Spontaneous complete resolution at 1-year follow-up
Lang et al. (5)1348.5753.85.2923.161.5Depression, 38.5%; conversion disorder, 30.8%; other psychiatric history, 7.7%; unclear, 15.4%; no psychiatric history 15.4%Physical injury or illness, 46.2%; work injury, 15.4%; others stress factors, 15.4%; death in family, 7.7%; NA, 15.4%Tremor, 84.6%; rigidity, 46.2%; bradykinesia, 100%; unusual or bizarre gait, 23.1%; weakness, 69.2%Clinical diagnosis in 6/13; F-DOPA PET scan for 7/13, all normalL-dopa-treatment for 5/13; positive response in 3One additional patient had abnormal fluoro-dopa SPECT and was reclassified as PD-FND
Factor et al. (21)253.515061000Posttraumatic stress disorder, 50%; past suicide attempts, 50%; alcohol abuse50% (after caring for chronically ill parents)Give-way weakness in 1; distractibility in 2/2NANAOver 842 consecutive patients with movement disorders; 28 had functional movement disorder; 2 had FP (0.2%)
Booij et al. (42)4NANANANANANANANANA[123I]FP-CIT SPECT, 100% normalNA
Gaig et al. (13)854.2562.56.15050Depression, 75%; conversion disorder, 25%; anxiety, 12.5%Surgery, 25%; neck injury, 12.5%; total, 37.5%Rest or kinetic or postural tremor in all; distractibility in 6/8; voluntary resistance in 3/8; slowness in all; abnormal gait in 4/8; inexpressive face in 6/8[123I]SPECT, 100% normalL-dopa-treatment for 8/8; positive response in 0One additional patient had an abnormal 123I SPECT, leading to detection of Parkin gene mutation, and was reclassified as PD-FND
Benaderette et al. (3)454.52505.57525Depression, 50%; bipolar disorder, 25%; personality disorder, 25%Death in family, 25%; surgery, 25%; litigation, 25%False neurological signs in all; bizarre rigidity in 3/4; atypical tremor in 2/4[123I]SPECT, 100% normalL-dopa-treatment for 4/4; positive response in 1All had EMG and polygraphic recording
Felicio et al. (6)336.61333.1NA66.6NANATremor distractibility in 2/3; false hemiparesis in 2/3; voluntarily induced slowness in 1/3; bizarre retropulsion without fall in 1/399mTC, 100% normalNAPatients were compared with PD patients and healthy controls
Jankovic (7)32481753.15.218.881.256% had a history (depression most frequent)Job-related stress, 34%; personal life stress, 13%; physical trauma, 13%; combination of multiple stress factors, 41%NANANAFamily history of PD present in 9/32 (28%)
Pourfar et al. (23)247210.08.5NANANANALeft hand rest tremor; dragging left legF-DOPA PET scan, 100% normal; FDG-PET scan, 100% qualitatively normal on visual inspectionL-dopa-treatment for 2/2; Motor fluctuations and dyskinesia after 5 years for 1/2FDG-PET scans compared for 25 PD patients, 23 multiple system atrophy patients, and 25 healthy controls. Case 1: increased regional metabolic activity in cerebellum and motor cortex, no change in basal ganglia. Case 2: increased regional metabolic activity in cerebellum with no change in motor cortex or basal ganglia
Umeh et al. (18)14101NANANANAFoot dystonia and right arm tremor; tremor semipurposeful, variability in frequency, distractible, and decrease in amplitude when opposite side of the body was examined; oppositional rigidity in lower extremities; deliberate slowness on finger taps[123I]FP-CIT SPECT normalL-dopa 600m g/d+entacapone 800mg/d with no benefit 
Sage and Mark (20)3651.52877.7<1 year for 14; 1–<5 years for 14; 5–10 years for 4; >10 years for 483.416.6Depression, 58.3%; anxiety, 38.9%22.2% of sample (not specified)Rest tremor in 8/36; postural and action tremor in 8/36; postural and rest tremor in 6/36; gait disturbance in 20/36NAL-dopa for 7/36; positive response information NAAt least 10 patients had family history of parkinsonism; 5 patients worked in health care
Bonnet et al. (22)137110060100None had a history of psychiatric disorder; mild anxiety and depression according to HADS upon evaluationNoneRapid-onset tremor; slowness of right hemibody; dream-enacting behaviorsFirst DaT-SCAN considered positive, control normalPartial response, but L-dopa agonist induced impulse control disordersEfficacy suprathreshold repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation
Langevin et al. (36)16005NANANANARight upper extremity tremorDaT-SCAN (123I) normalL-dopa-treatment for 1/1; positive response in 0Underwent deep brain stimulation
Taylor et al. (41)554.43600.72NANADepression, 60%NANA[123I]FP-CIT SPECT imaging normalNAComparison with PD patients and healthy controls
Frasca Polara et al. (4)657.4583.35.4NA16.7Depression, 83.3%NATremor entrainment in 1/6; distractibility in 4/6; variability in 4/6; hypokinesia without decrement in 2/6; gegenhalten in 2/6DaT-SCAN for 5/6, all normal; clinical diagnosis for 1/5L-dopa treatment for four; positive response in 3/4FP represented 0.24% of patients with parkinsonism
Kumar and Kumar (35)176060100NoneNABilateral upper and lower limb tremor with an unsteady gait and slowness of movements; unusual blend of rest, postural, and action tremor of both upper and lower limbs; variability and distractibility of tremorClinical diagnosisL-dopa-treatment for 1/1; positive response in 0 
Total12050.77262.15.035050Psychiatric history, 67.6%; depression, 55.2%46.8%Tremor found in 72.2%DaT-SCAN for 38 patients, all normal; clinical diagnosis for 12 patients; NA for 70 patients 
a
DaT-SCAN=striatal dopamine transporter imaging, FDG-PET=fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography, F-DOPA PET=fluorodopa positron emission tomography, HADS=Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, [123I]FP-CIT=123I-fluoropropyl-carbomethoxy-3β-4-iodophenyltropane, 123I=ioflupane, NA=not available, PD=Parkinson’s disease, PD-FND=functional neurological disorder in Parkinson’s disease, SPECT=single-photon emission computed tomography, 99mTC=[99mTc]TRODAT-1.
Data about psychiatric history were available for 108 patients, 73 of whom (67.6%) had a history of a psychiatric disorder. Among these 73 patients, information on the psychiatric diagnosis was available for 55 patients, and depression was the most frequently reported disorder (N=42, 76%). Other reported psychiatric comorbidities included anxiety, bipolar disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, personality disorders, and substance use disorders. Triggering stressors were identified in 46.8% of patients (N=44/94) and consisted of physical injury, stress at work, or loss of family or friends.
A tremor was described on clinical examination in 72.2% (N=57) of FP patients (available data for 79 patients). Tremor could be of the rest, postural, or action type (13, 19, 20); data were available for 36 patients, of whom two had no tremor at examination, and 70.5% (N=24) had a mixed component of postural, rest, or action tremor). Tremor had a variability over time in amplitude, frequency, and distribution (3, 4) and with distractibility and entrainability (4). Other reported FP signs were oppositional rigidity with distractibility, atypical gait, pseudo-slowness (effortful slowness of the movement), pseudo-hypokinesia with no decrement (fixed reduction of the amplitude of the movement, without decrement), and other incongruent neurological signs.
Some patients with FP had a normal DaT-SCAN that confirmed the absence of dopaminergic denervation (38 patients had normal DaT-SCAN results). Diagnosis of FP was based only on clinical history and examination of 12 patients from three studies (Walters et al. [19], N=1; Lang et al. [5], N=10; and Frasca Polara et al. [4], N=1) who did not undergo DaT-SCAN, and data about DaT-SCAN were not available in three additional studies (N=70) (7, 20, 21).
In one of the above studies, the authors aimed to provide an estimate of the prevalence of FP in the general Swiss population (4). The crude prevalence rate of FP was 0.64 per 100,000, representing 0.24% of all patients with parkinsonism and 1.3% of nondegenerative parkinsonism (drug-induced parkinsonism [44%] and vascular parkinsonism [37%] being the most frequent).
Little data were available regarding response to L-dopa treatment; data were available for 28 patients, and there was no response to L-dopa treatment for 18 of them (64.3%). Other treatments were occasionally reported. One patient underwent a single session of repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation, leading to a complete and immediate recovery from all symptoms, with a persistent remission at 6 months (22). Another patient was initially diagnosed as having multiple-system atrophy, and because of the reported levodopa response, had a unilateral subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation surgery but without any improvement (23).

Discussion

Main Results Regarding PD-FND

Most patients in the studies reviewed here presented with motor FND. This raises the question of whether motor FND is more prevalent in PD or whether other FND phenotypes, such as nonepileptic seizure or sensory disorders, are underdiagnosed or underreported. Interestingly, tremor, gait disturbance, and parkinsonism, which are part of the PD phenotypic spectrum, were the most prevalent presentations. PD patients tended to express FND on their most PD-affected side, and FND preceded or was mainly diagnosed at the same time as PD (21). This finding is similar to what is observed in other neurological conditions with functional overlay, such as seizures with functional nonepileptic seizure (24), tics with functional tics (25), or various other hyperkinetic movement disorders with functional hyperkinetic movements (26). In this case setting, functional manifestations tend to be reminiscent of those resulting from the other neurological condition or to involve the same region of the body. A cohort study showed that FND was significantly more frequent in PD and in dementia with Lewy bodies than in other neurodegenerative disorders (1).
These results raise the question of common mechanisms involved in both diseases. The loss of dopamine in PD induces a switch of the control of the motor behavior from a procedural process toward a more conscious and goal-directed mechanism involving attention (27). As proposed by Pareés et al. (8), this increased attention toward the affected limbs, combined with physical symptoms induced by the disease and additional affective and cognitive factors, may produce the required vulnerability to induce FND. Affective and cognitive factors may be induced by PD (28, 29) but may also preexist PD. Moreover, emotion dysregulation may play a role in the development of FND (30). We found that psychiatric comorbidities and exposure to potential triggering stressors were very frequent. Only one study compared patients with PD-FND to patients matched on age, gender, and disease duration (2). In this study, PD-FND patients were more likely than the comparison patients to have a preexisting psychiatric disorder and had worse depression and anxiety. However, several biases may have influenced these results: the study was a retrospective analysis of charts, and psychiatric comorbidities may have been searched more carefully in PD-FND patients than in PD patients. Of note, previous studies that compared patients with FND to those with PD did not find significant differences in psychiatric comorbidities (31, 32). Additional prospective case-control studies are necessary to clarify the prevalence and the potential impact of stressors and psychiatric comorbidities in patients with PD-FND and those with PD.
DaT-SCAN was used in most studies to confirm the loss of dopaminergic neurons and hence the diagnosis of underlying PD. Some authors proposed electromyography and accelerometry to further document the functional movement disorders (3, 8). As highlighted in many case reports, we recommend performing DaT-SCAN because the distinction between PD, PD-FND, and FP can be challenging without DaT-SCAN and electrophysiological recording, and patients may otherwise be misdiagnosed (11, 13, 33, 34).
Finally, the studies reviewed provided limited data about prognosis in PD-FND. It has been shown that compared with PD patients, patients with PD-FND were likely to receive higher doses of antiparkinsonian treatment and more medical attention (number of hospitalizations and calls to their doctor) and that the duration before diagnosis was longer (2). This may lead to more difficulties in the care of these patients, and future prospective research is necessary to better characterize the prognosis of PD-FND patients.
Accurate diagnosis of PD with FND is critical, because functional symptoms in PD may lead to significant disability, escalation of antiparkinsonian treatment, requests for alternative therapy (such as deep brain stimulation), and poorer quality of life (2).

Main Results Regarding FP

Overall, the reported prevalence of FP in functional movement disorder (FMD) series varied between 1.7% and 25% of the patients (21). In the Toronto Western Hospital series of FMD patients (N=64), 6.4% had FP (N=4) (5). Jankovic (7) reported that among more than 530 patients with FMD, 3.2% (N=17) had FP as the predominant presentation.
In this review, we found 120 reported cases of “pure” FP, i.e. with no comorbid PD diagnosis. A tremor was present in most patients and was atypical for PD’s tremor because it had a significant postural or action component in most patients. Other clinical characteristics of functional tremor were distractibility and entrainability, and other reported signs of FP included oppositional rigidity with distractibility, atypical gait, pseudo-slowness, pseudo-hypokinesia without decrement, and other incongruent neurological signs. These positive signs of FP are usually underrecognized. Indeed, only 25% of these cases received a diagnosis of FP at the initial visit in the study by Frasca Polara et al. (4). There is thus an important unmet need for development of specific training for neurologists in FND semiology. The search for positive signs of FP should be systematic when patients present unusual features of PD, such as a sudden change in PD course or unusual evolution of PD, or when there are some unusual features upon examination. Better training and extended evaluations would help avoid misdiagnosis of FP and improve prognosis of patients. Moreover, even for well-trained neurologists, the distinction between FP and PD can be very challenging (18, 2123, 35, 36).
In this context, a proportion of patients underwent a DaT-SCAN to check for the normality, and hence the absence, of underlying PD. There is evidence that DaT-SCAN is useful for PD diagnosis in doubtful cases (37). Although a normal DaT-SCAN is necessary to rule out underlying PD, it does not discriminate between essential tremor, FND, and other diagnoses (7, 1012). In the studies reviewed, only a few patients underwent EMG/accelerometry recording to document and confirm the clinical diagnosis of FP (3). Electrophysiological testing is not available in most centers (even in large tertiary referral centers, unless this is a focus of research), and only a few experts have sufficient training to conduct this assessment. We believe, however, that EMG and accelerometry can be of particular interest to further document the diagnosis of FP, notably to improve diagnostic accuracy (38).
Management of functional symptoms can be challenging, and little information was available among all cases about treatment and outcome. Response to L-dopa treatment was available for 28 patients. Most of these patients (64.3%) did not show any improvement with L-dopa. Other management approaches were reported: one patient improved dramatically with transcranial magnetic stimulation (22), another improved spontaneously at follow-up (19), and another did not improve after deep brain stimulation (23). There was no information about the efficacy of physiotherapy, even though it is widely used in FND (39).

FP and Functional Neurological Symptoms in PD

FP and PD present with very similar clinical symptoms and signs. Both diseases are characterized by the association of akinesia, tremor, and/or rigidity. However, several clinical differences can be highlighted: patients with FP, compared with those with PD-FND, are younger, more often women, more likely to have a psychiatric history, and less likely to have identified stress factors (see Table S3 in the online supplement). Also, atypical tremor is more than twice as frequent in FP patients, compared with PD-FND patients.
Among patients with FP, the mean rate of comorbid PD was 32.6%, which is significantly higher than what is usually reported in FND (40). The high rate of comorbidity of both diseases raises the question of shared pathogenic mechanisms. Further prospective studies are necessary to verify the high rate of PD comorbidity in FP and to better characterize the differences and similarities between pure FP, FP with comorbid PD, and PD-FND.

Limitations

Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, we decided a priori to include all trial designs and case reports of patients with PD-FND or FP, even if some data were missing or incomplete. Therefore, our conclusions were drawn in some studies from subgroups of the total sample and might not be generalizable to the entire population. Second, diagnostic criteria differed in the studies we reviewed, mainly in the case reports. Some FP patients did not undergo DaT-SCAN, and the diagnosis was based only on clinical examination. Some of these patients may have had undiagnosed underlying PD and may have been misdiagnosed as “pure” FP patients. Moreover, FND symptoms, which are fluctuating and sensitive to distractibility, may be difficult to distinguish from fluctuations of PD symptoms related to stress or anxiety. Some PD patients with anxiety- or stress-related fluctuations may thus have been incorrectly diagnosed as having FND.
Except for case reports, all studies reviewed were retrospective, implying multiple potential biases. Therefore, to assess the prevalence of functional neurological symptoms in PD and to systematically compare “pure” FP with PD-FND, future research should be conducted with a prospective design and a systematic assessment of a larger number of consecutive PD patients.

Conclusions

The findings of this review about FND and PD (including PD-FND and pure FP) suggest that a relationship may exist between these two diseases, with overlapping and shared clinical characteristics. These observations also highlight the importance of screening for FND symptoms in patients with PD and of considering the possibility of PD in FP patients. Additional studies are needed to understand the pathophysiology of FP and the shared or specific mechanisms involved in both FND and PD.

Supplementary Material

File (appi.neuropsych.19030058.ds001.pdf)

References

1.
Onofrj M, Thomas A, Tiraboschi P, et al: Updates on somatoform disorders (SFMD) in Parkinson’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies and discussion of phenomenology. J Neurol Sci 2011; 310:166–171
2.
Wissel BD, Dwivedi AK, Merola A, et al: Functional neurological disorders in Parkinson disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2018; 89:566–571
3.
Benaderette S, Zanotti Fregonara P, Apartis E, et al: Psychogenic parkinsonism: a combination of clinical, electrophysiological, and [(123)I]-FP-CIT SPECT scan explorations improves diagnostic accuracy. Mov Disord 2006; 21:310–317
4.
Frasca Polara G, Fleury V, Stone J, et al: Prevalence of functional (psychogenic) parkinsonism in two Swiss movement disorders clinics and review of the literature. J Neurol Sci 2018; 387:37–45
5.
Lang AE, Koller WC, Fahn S: Psychogenic parkinsonism. Arch Neurol 1995; 52:802–810
6.
Felicio AC, Godeiro-Junior C, Moriyama TS, et al: Degenerative parkinsonism in patients with psychogenic parkinsonism: a dopamine transporter imaging study. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2010; 112:282–285
7.
Jankovic J: Diagnosis and treatment of psychogenic parkinsonism. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2011; 82:1300–1303
8.
Pareés I, Saifee TA, Kojovic M, et al: Functional (psychogenic) symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 2013; 28:1622–1627
9.
Thomas M, Jankovic J: Psychogenic movement disorders: diagnosis and management. CNS Drugs 2004; 18:437–452
10.
Marek K, Seibyl J, Eberly S, et al: Longitudinal follow-up of SWEDD subjects in the PRECEPT Study. Neurology 2014; 82:1791–1797
11.
Erro R, Schneider SA, Stamelou M, et al: What do patients with scans without evidence of dopaminergic deficit (SWEDD) have? New evidence and continuing controversies. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2016; 87:319–323
12.
Parkinson Progression Marker Initiative: The Parkinson Progression Marker Initiative (PPMI). Prog Neurobiol 2011; 95:629–635
13.
Gaig C, Martí MJ, Tolosa E, et al: 123I-Ioflupane SPECT in the diagnosis of suspected psychogenic Parkinsonism. Mov Disord 2006; 21:1994–1998
14.
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, et al: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ 2009; 339:b2535
15.
Fahn S, Williams DT: Psychogenic dystonia. Adv Neurol 1988; 50:431–455
16.
Gupta A, Lang AE: Psychogenic movement disorders. Curr Opin Neurol 2009; 22:430–436
17.
Hughes AJ, Daniel SE, Kilford L, et al: Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: a clinico-pathological study of 100 cases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55:181–184
18.
Umeh CC, Szabo Z, Pontone GM, et al.: Dopamine transporter imaging in psychogenic parkinsonism and neurodegenerative parkinsonism with psychogenic overlay: a report of three cases. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (Epub Sept 10, 2013)
19.
Walters AS, Boudwin J, Wright D, et al: Three hysterical movement disorders. Psychol Rep 1988; 62:979–985
20.
Sage JI, Mark MH: Psychogenic parkinsonism: clinical spectrum and diagnosis. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2015; 27:33–38
21.
Factor SA, Podskalny GD, Molho ES: Psychogenic movement disorders: frequency, clinical profile, and characteristics. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1995; 59:406–412
22.
Bonnet C, Mesrati F, Roze E, et al: Motor and non-motor symptoms in functional parkinsonism responsive to transcranial magnetic stimulation: a case report. J Neurol 2016; 263:816–817
23.
Pourfar MH, Tang CC, Mogilner AY, et al: Using imaging to identify psychogenic parkinsonism before deep brain stimulation surgery. Report of 2 cases. J Neurosurg 2012; 116:114–118
24.
Benbadis SR, Agrawal V, Tatum WO 4th: How many patients with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures also have epilepsy? Neurology 2001; 57:915–917
25.
Dooley JM, Stokes A, Gordon KE: Pseudo-tics in Tourette syndrome. J Child Neurol 1994; 9:50–51
26.
Ranawaya R, Riley D, Lang A: Psychogenic dyskinesias in patients with organic movement disorders. Mov Disord 1990; 5:127–133
27.
Redgrave P, Rodriguez M, Smith Y, et al: Goal-directed and habitual control in the basal ganglia: implications for Parkinson’s disease. Nat Rev Neurosci 2010; 11:760–772
28.
Reijnders JSAM, Ehrt U, Weber WEJ, et al: A systematic review of prevalence studies of depression in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 2008; 23:183–189
29.
Getz SJ, Levin B: Cognitive and neuropsychiatric features of early Parkinson’s disease. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2017; 32:769–785
30.
Pick S, Goldstein LH, Perez DL, et al.: Emotional processing in functional neurological disorder: a review, biopsychosocial model and research agenda. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2019; 90:704–711
31.
Gendre T, Carle G, Mesrati F, et al: Quality of life in functional movement disorders is as altered as in organic movement disorders. J Psychosom Res 2019; 116:10–16
32.
Anderson KE, Gruber-Baldini AL, Vaughan CG, et al: Impact of psychogenic movement disorders versus Parkinson’s on disability, quality of life, and psychopathology. Mov Disord 2007; 22:2204–2209
33.
Colosimo C: Psychogenic tremor in Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neurol Belg 2015; 115:829–830
34.
Baik JS: Attention in Parkinson’s disease mimicking suggestion in psychogenic movement disorder. J Mov Disord 2012; 5:53–54
35.
Kumar R, Kumar R: A case of psychogenic Parkinsonism: late age of onset should not be a barrier to make the diagnosis. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2018; 52:1098
36.
Langevin J-P, Skoch JM, Sherman SJ: Deep brain stimulation of a patient with psychogenic movement disorder. Surg Neurol Int 2016; 7(suppl 35):S824–S826
37.
Mirpour S, Turkbey EB, Marashdeh W, et al: Impact of DAT-SPECT on management of patients suspected of parkinsonism. Clin Nucl Med 2018; 43:710–714
38.
Schwingenschuh P, Saifee TA, Katschnig-Winter P, et al: Validation of “laboratory-supported” criteria for functional (psychogenic) tremor. Mov Disord 2016; 31:555–562
39.
Nielsen G, Stone J, Matthews A, et al: Physiotherapy for functional motor disorders: a consensus recommendation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2015; 86:1113–1119
40.
Stone J, Carson A, Duncan R, et al: Which neurological diseases are most likely to be associated with “symptoms unexplained by organic disease.” J Neurol 2012; 259:33–38
41.
Taylor S, Gafton J, Shah B, et al: Progression of nonmotor symptoms in subgroups of patients with non-dopamine-deficient Parkinsonism. Mov Disord 2016; 31:344–351
42.
Booij J, Speelman JD, Horstink MWIM, et al: The clinical benefit of imaging striatal dopamine transporters with [123I]FP-CIT SPET in differentiating patients with presynaptic parkinsonism from those with other forms of parkinsonism. Eur J Nucl Med 2001; 28:266–272

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
Go to The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
Pages: 4 - 13
PubMed: 31466517

History

Received: 14 March 2019
Revision received: 20 May 2019
Revision received: 11 June 2019
Accepted: 14 June 2019
Published online: 30 August 2019
Published in print: Winter 2020

Keywords

  1. Parkinson Disease
  2. Functional Neurological Disorders
  3. Functional Parkinsonism
  4. Functional Motor Disorders
  5. Functional Overlay

Authors

Details

Marine Ambar Akkaoui, M.D. [email protected]
Neurology Unit, Avicenne University Hospital, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Paris-Seine Saint Denis, Bobigny, France (Ambar Akkaoui, Degos, Garcin); Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, Paris (Degos); the Department of Psychiatry and Addictive Medicine, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), University Hospital Bichat–Claude Bernard, and Paris Diderot University, Paris (Geoffroy); the Department of Neurology, Salpêtrière Hospital, AP-HP, Paris (Roze); and Brain and Spine Institute, Faculty of Medicine of Sorbonne University, Paris (Roze, Garcin).
Pierre A. Geoffroy, M.D., Ph.D.
Neurology Unit, Avicenne University Hospital, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Paris-Seine Saint Denis, Bobigny, France (Ambar Akkaoui, Degos, Garcin); Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, Paris (Degos); the Department of Psychiatry and Addictive Medicine, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), University Hospital Bichat–Claude Bernard, and Paris Diderot University, Paris (Geoffroy); the Department of Neurology, Salpêtrière Hospital, AP-HP, Paris (Roze); and Brain and Spine Institute, Faculty of Medicine of Sorbonne University, Paris (Roze, Garcin).
Emmanuel Roze, M.D., Ph.D.
Neurology Unit, Avicenne University Hospital, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Paris-Seine Saint Denis, Bobigny, France (Ambar Akkaoui, Degos, Garcin); Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, Paris (Degos); the Department of Psychiatry and Addictive Medicine, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), University Hospital Bichat–Claude Bernard, and Paris Diderot University, Paris (Geoffroy); the Department of Neurology, Salpêtrière Hospital, AP-HP, Paris (Roze); and Brain and Spine Institute, Faculty of Medicine of Sorbonne University, Paris (Roze, Garcin).
Bertrand Degos, M.D., Ph.D.
Neurology Unit, Avicenne University Hospital, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Paris-Seine Saint Denis, Bobigny, France (Ambar Akkaoui, Degos, Garcin); Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, Paris (Degos); the Department of Psychiatry and Addictive Medicine, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), University Hospital Bichat–Claude Bernard, and Paris Diderot University, Paris (Geoffroy); the Department of Neurology, Salpêtrière Hospital, AP-HP, Paris (Roze); and Brain and Spine Institute, Faculty of Medicine of Sorbonne University, Paris (Roze, Garcin).
Béatrice Garcin, M.D., Ph.D.
Neurology Unit, Avicenne University Hospital, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Paris-Seine Saint Denis, Bobigny, France (Ambar Akkaoui, Degos, Garcin); Dynamics and Pathophysiology of Neuronal Networks Team, Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, Paris (Degos); the Department of Psychiatry and Addictive Medicine, Assistance Publique–Hôpitaux de Paris (AP-HP), University Hospital Bichat–Claude Bernard, and Paris Diderot University, Paris (Geoffroy); the Department of Neurology, Salpêtrière Hospital, AP-HP, Paris (Roze); and Brain and Spine Institute, Faculty of Medicine of Sorbonne University, Paris (Roze, Garcin).

Notes

Send correspondence to Dr. Ambar Akkaoui ([email protected]).

Competing Interests

Dr. Geoffrey has received consulting fees from Menarini and travel funding from AstraZeneca, Lundbeck, and Otsuka. Dr. Degos has received honoraria from Ipsen and travel funding from Elivie and Merz-Pharma. The other authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests.

Metrics & Citations

Metrics

Citations

Export Citations

If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.

For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu.

Format
Citation style
Style
Copy to clipboard

View Options

View options

PDF/EPUB

View PDF/EPUB

Get Access

Login options

Already a subscriber? Access your subscription through your login credentials or your institution for full access to this article.

Personal login Institutional Login Open Athens login
Purchase Options

Purchase this article to access the full text.

PPV Articles - Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences

PPV Articles - Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences

Not a subscriber?

Subscribe Now / Learn More

PsychiatryOnline subscription options offer access to the DSM-5-TR® library, books, journals, CME, and patient resources. This all-in-one virtual library provides psychiatrists and mental health professionals with key resources for diagnosis, treatment, research, and professional development.

Need more help? PsychiatryOnline Customer Service may be reached by emailing [email protected] or by calling 800-368-5777 (in the U.S.) or 703-907-7322 (outside the U.S.).

Media

Figures

Other

Tables

Share

Share

Share article link

Share