Skip to main content
Full access
Perspectives
Published Online: 1 February 2013

Evidence for a Genetic Component for Substance Dependence in Native Americans

Abstract

Objective

Although tribes differ with regard to the use of alcohol and drugs, substance dependence is one of the primary sources of health problems facing Native Americans. General population studies have demonstrated that substance dependence has a substantially heritable component (approximately 50% of the risk resulting from genetic influences); however, fewer studies have investigated the role of genetics in the risk for substance dependence in Native Americans.

Method

The authors present a literature review of the evidence for a genetic component in the etiology of substance dependence in Native Americans, including studies of heritability, linkage analyses, and candidate genes.

Results

Evidence for the heritability of alcohol and drug dependence was found. Linkage analyses revealed that genes influencing risk for substance dependence and related phenotypes, such as body mass index (BMI), drug tolerance, EEG patterns, and externalizing traits, reside on several chromosome regions identified in other population samples. Overlap in the gene locations for substance dependence and BMI suggests that a common genetic substrate may exist for disorders of consumption. Studies of the genes that code for alcohol-metabolizing enzymes have not revealed any risk variants specific to Native American populations, although most Native Americans lack protective variants seen in other populations. Other candidate genes associated with substance dependence phenotypes in Native Americans include OPRM1, CRN1, COMT, GABRA2, MAOA, and HTR3-B.

Conclusions

Substance dependence has a substantial genetic component in Native Americans, similar in magnitude to that reported for other populations. The high rates of substance dependence seen in some tribes is likely a combination of a lack of genetic protective factors (metabolizing enzyme variants) combined with genetically mediated risk factors (externalizing traits, consumption drive, and drug sensitivity or tolerance) that combine with key environmental factors (trauma exposure, early age at onset of use, and environmental hardship) to produce an elevated risk for the disorder.
Although tribes differ with regard to the use of alcohol and drugs, the U.S. Indian Health Service has cited alcohol, tobacco, and drug dependence as one of the most urgent health problems facing Native Americans (1). Large-scale U.S. epidemiological studies demonstrate that compared with other U.S. ethnic groups, Native Americans have the highest rates of alcohol and other drug dependence (2), and Native American adolescents have been reported to have the highest rates of substance use and substance-related disorders (3). Lifetime rates of alcohol dependence in the small number of individual tribal groups studied have been reported to be in the range of 20%–70% (46), which is higher than the epidemiological rate of DSM-IV alcohol dependence of 13% in the U.S. general population (7). The causes for higher rates of alcohol and drug dependence among Native Americans are thought to have both environmental and genetic determinants.
Early sociocultural theories posited that Native American alcohol use and abuse were a result of the loss of traditional community lands, cultures, and ties coupled with the stress of acculturation. However, there has been little direct evidence to support such theories (8). Data for more recent theories support an association between alcohol dependence and factors such as personal and historical trauma (9, 10) and early age at onset of drinking (11), as well as lack of contingency between access to basic-life reinforcers (e.g., employment, housing, education, and health care) and sobriety (12).
Psychobiological theories have also been developed to explain the excessive drinking seen in some Native Americans. One theory of problem drinking, called the “firewater myth,” hypothesized that Native Americans are physiologically unable to handle alcohol and thus experience loss of control following alcohol consumption and problem drinking (13). However, laboratory studies of alcohol drinking in Native Americans provide no support for such theories (14). Additionally, the firewater theory is inconsistent with an extensive literature demonstrating that a diminished response to alcohol is predictive of the future development of alcohol-related problems in most populations (15), including Native Americans (14).
The contribution of genetic factors to the development of alcohol and other drug dependence has been consistently supported by numerous family, twin, and adoption studies in general population samples. Although the mode of transmission of this elevated risk is unclear, most investigators favor a model in which a genetic predisposition interacts with environmental variables to produce an overall risk for the disorder. It is also likely that complex disorders such as substance dependence are influenced by a large number of genes of small effect. While many of these genes may be specific to the etiology of these disorders, others likely overlap with other psychiatric and metabolic disorders. For example, substance dependence and obesity both occur more frequently in some Native American populations. One theoretical assumption concerning Native people is that the long history of dependence on foraging and subsistence agriculture may have led to selective enrichment of traits that improve genetic fitness, the so-called thrifty or fat-sparing genes. It has been suggested that this same selective pressure may be enriched for genetic variants that increase the risk for consumption of alcohol and perhaps other drugs of abuse, providing another potential pathway that could give rise to shared genetic influences between these traits (16, 17).
In this study, we present a review of the findings supporting a substantial genetic component contributing to the development of substance dependence in Native Americans. Such findings have the potential to yield important insights into the genetics of substance dependence given that genetic epidemiology studies conducted in well-defined populations, such as Native American tribes, can be particularly informative in view of the relative environmental and genetic homogeneity of some of these populations compared with larger, more stratified general population samples.

Method

We conducted a literature search using the PubMed and Google Scholar databases and keywords related to Native Americans and alcohol and substance abuse and dependence. The reference sections of identified studies were reviewed to identify additional studies. Because our review was qualitative in nature, all identified studies that reported either qualitative or quantitative results for a Native American sample were included. Reviewed studies were primarily conducted in three populations: a California Indian population (Mission Indians), a Southwest American Indian population, and a Plains Indian population. The names of the tribes included are not formally identified in order to avoid potential stigma toward the populations studied. The three primary sources of genetic studies (California, Southwest, and Plains) used community samples. Studies estimating the heritability of substance dependence diagnoses and related phenotypes are reviewed first, followed by a review of genetic linkage studies examining these phenotypes, then a review of candidate gene studies, and finally a summary.

Results

Evidence for Heritability of Substance Use and Dependence in Native Americans

The heritability of drug and alcohol dependence and related phenotypes has been studied in at least three Native American populations. In these studies, heritability (h2) estimates were obtained from data collected from large extended families. The earliest study, conducted in the Southwest American Indian population, found that DSM-III-R alcohol dependence was heritable, although exact heritability estimates were not presented (18). Alcohol dependence in the California Indian population showed some evidence of heritability (DSM-III-R criteria: h2=0.19, DSM-IV criteria: h2=0.38) (19) and was also found to be associated with the degree of Native American Heritage (20). However, little evidence was found for the heritability of alcohol dependence in the Plains Indian population (D. Goldman, personal communication, 2008). In contrast, twin studies of alcohol dependence have consistently yielded significant evidence of heritability, ranging from 0.50 to 0.65, using general population samples with participants of predominantly Caucasian origin (21).
One potential explanation for these discrepant findings is that high prevalence rates of the disorder among Native Americans may make it difficult to detect genetic influences. Alternatively, the heritability of disorders such as alcohol dependence may be reduced or difficult to detect in some populations because only some aspects of the diagnosis may be heritable. Two symptoms that have been long associated with severe alcohol dependence are withdrawal and tolerance, specified in DSM-IV as alcohol dependence with a physiological component. In the California Indian population, evidence for the heritability of DSM-III-R symptoms of alcohol dependence with withdrawal (h2=0.71) and symptoms of alcohol dependence associated with heavy drinking (h2=0.37) were found to be heritable (20, 21), whereas psychosocial problems associated with alcohol dependence were not. These findings are consistent with those of a previous general population twin study demonstrating that some specific alcohol dependence symptoms, including withdrawal symptoms, are more heritable than others, but the findings also differ in that the latter study reported that heritability estimates of specific symptoms did not exceed those of the alcohol dependence diagnosis (22). These studies suggest that specific facets of alcohol dependence most likely have a genetic component, whereas others, particularly those associated with psychosocial impairment but not heavy drinking, may not.
Evidence for the heritability of the use of and dependence on other illicit drugs has also been investigated in the California Indian population. Heritability for initiating use was found to be high for marijuana (h2=0.59), opiates (h2=0.58), phencyclidine (h2=0.51), sedatives (h2=0.49), and stimulants (0.38). Heritability was only modest for initiation of cocaine (h2=0.14), hallucinogens (h2=0.26), and solvents (h2=0.13). The heritabilities of drug dependence diagnoses and symptoms were also estimated in this population and found to be significant for marijuana dependence with antisocial traits (23), stimulant dependence with craving (24), and heavy tobacco use (25). Taken together, these studies suggest that both initiation of drug use and transition to dependence have a significant genetic component. These findings are largely consistent with findings from general population twin studies suggesting substantial genetic influences, in the same numerical ranges, in the liability for the initiation of illicit drug use, as well as the transition to dependence (26).

Genome Scans for Substance Use and Dependence in Native Americans

The first whole autosomal genome scan for genetic linkage to alcohol dependence was conducted in the Southwest American Indian population (18). In that study, highly suggestive evidence for linkage, expressed as the log of the odds (LOD score) of a locus being linked to the phenotype rather than unlinked, emerged for two genomic regions. The best evidence was seen on chromosome 11p15.5 (LOD score=3.1) near the D4 dopamine receptor (DRD4) and tyrosine hydroxlyase (TH) genes, with secondary evidence on chromosome 4p11-p13 near the alpha 2 and beta 1 GABA receptor genes (GABRA2 and GABRB1, respectively) and on 4q23-q25 near the alcohol dehydrogenase gene cluster. Evidence for linkage has also been demonstrated for three alcohol dependence phenotypes in California Indians. The strongest result was reported for chromosome 5q21.2-q21.3 in a study of an alcohol craving phenotype (LOD score=4.5) (16). Chromosomes 4q22.1 and 12q24.32 yielded LOD scores exceeding 2 for an alcohol use severity phenotype, and chromosomes 6p21.1, 15q22.2-q25.3, and 16p13.3 yielded LOD scores that exceeded 2 for a withdrawal phenotype (20). Evidence for linkage to chromosomes 4, 15, and 16 was reported for alcohol-related phenotypes in the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA), suggesting that these regions of the genome confer risk and protection for alcohol dependence in Native Americans, as well as in general population samples.
Evidence for linkage has also been demonstrated in genome scans for other drugs of abuse, including marijuana, stimulants, and tobacco, in Native Americans. A genome scan using a marijuana dependence phenotype that also included externalizing traits uncovered a LOD score of 4.4 on chromosome 16q24.1, as well as a LOD score of 6.4 on chromosome 19q13.33 (23). Genome scans have also been conducted to map loci associated with stimulant-dependence phenotypes (amphetamine and cocaine) in California Indians. In that study, linkage analysis revealed a locus with a LOD score of 3.02 on chromosome 15q22.3 near the nicotinic receptor gene cluster (24). A genome scan for loci associated with tobacco use in California Indians identified a region with a LOD score that exceeded 3.0 on chromosome 4q22.1 in a bivariate analysis with an alcohol drinking severity phenotype (25). This finding suggests that a region of chromosome 4q22.1 harbors one or more genes that jointly influence alcohol dependence and tobacco use phenotypes.
In order to test the theory that dependence on drugs of abuse may have genetic underpinnings similar to other consumption disorders such as obesity, the results of the genome scan for any drug dependence was compared with those of a genome scan for body mass index (BMI) (17). Evidence for linkage was found on chromosome 6q25.2-q25.3 for both the any drug dependence (LOD score=3.3) and BMI (LOD score=2.3) phenotypes. Bivariate analyses of the two phenotypes revealed a combined LOD score of 4.1 at that location, with evidence of pleiotrophy (i.e., a single genetic locus influencing more than one trait). This result provides preliminary data suggesting that consumption phenotypes may share common genetic determinants and thus provide a potential explanation for the elevated rates of substance dependence and obesity in some Native American populations.

Genome Scans for Substance Use-Related Phenotypes in Native Americans

There are a number of environmentally and genetically influenced risk factors that could potentially enhance the development of substance dependence. One set of factors is the presence of comorbid internalizing (anxiety and depression) and externalizing (antisocial personality/conduct) disorders. One theory of the cause of the elevated rates of substance use disorders seen in some Native American tribes is that factors such as memories of historical and current trauma, conditions on reservations, prejudice, and economic hardship may lead to elevated rates of anxiety and depression, which in turn lead to more substance use and dependence—the self-medication hypothesis. However, a number of investigators have examined the comorbidity of substance use and dependence with internalizing disorders and have not found elevated rates of internalizing disorders (27).
In contrast, higher rates of externalizing disorders and substance dependence have been reported in several studies of Native American communities and clinic samples (28, 29). Only one study has examined the evidence for shared genetic influences between these diagnostic categories in Native Americans (30). In that study, antisocial personality disorder (h2=0.76) and antisocial personality disorder/conduct disorder (h2=0.56) were found to be highly heritable and comorbid with drug and alcohol dependence. Additionally, suggestive evidence for linkage (LOD score >2.0) was found on chromosomes 1q43, 3q27, 4q12, 14q31.3, 17q25.3, and 20p11.23. Each of these linkage peaks has been related to alcohol and other substance use phenotypes in studies of other ethnic groups, and the loci identified on chromosomes 1 and 3 have been related to conduct symptoms in other linkage studies using general population samples (31). Again, these studies suggest that the regions of the genome that influence externalizing disorders and substance dependence in Native Americans are most likely similar to those found in the general population.
A second set of factors specifically hypothesized to improve the power to identify genetic variants related to substance use disorders are collectively referred to as endophenotypes. Electrophysiological measures provide one example of an endophenotype for substance use disorders. Electrophysiological measures are highly heritable indices of brain function shown to be relevant to the processes involved in the development of substance dependence in both the general population (32) and Native Americans (33). Evidence that EEG measures represent specifically promising endophenotypes for substance use disorders has been presented in a number of studies published using the COGA data set (34). Similar findings in Native American populations have been described in several studies (3539). In one study of the California Indian population (38), EEG alpha phenotypes were found to be heritable (h2=0.67), and in a second study (37), linkage analysis revealed two loci that had a LOD score ≥3.0 for the frontocentral scalp region on chromosomes 1p36.31-p36.22 and 6p21.1. Additionally, four locations with LOD scores >2.0 were identified on chromosomes 4q22.1, 11p14.1, 14q32.2, and 16q12.2 for the frontocentral location and one on chromosome 2p12 for the centroparietal-occipital location. These results corroborate the importance of regions on chromosomes 4 and 6 highlighted in previous segregation studies of alcohol dependence-related phenotypes in this and other populations, as well as areas that overlap with other substance dependence phenotypes identified in previous linkage studies. Notably, further research is needed to determine whether the described linkage peak on chromosome 4 can be explained by polymorphisms in GABRA2, as reported in COGA (40), or by polymorphisms in another gene. Nonetheless, these results support the general use of EEG traits and specifically support EEG alpha recorded from frontocentral scalp areas as important endophenotypes for alcohol and other substance dependence (37, 38).
Two additional studies using EEG frequency measures as endophenotypes for substance use disorders were conducted in the Plains Indian population (35, 39). In the first study, the authors carried out a genome-wide linkage analysis that yielded significant evidence of linkage to a region of chromosome 5q13-14 containing the corticotropin-releasing hormone-binding protein gene (CRHBP). Follow-up association studies suggested a relationship between polymorphisms in this gene and alcoholism in a Caucasian sample but not in the Plains Indian population (35). In the second study, the authors performed a genome-wide association scan of EEG power phenotypes. Significant associations were observed between theta power and polymorphisms in the SH3-domain GRB2-like (endophilin) interacting protein 1 gene (SGIP1) on chromosome 1p31.3 that also yielded an association with alcohol dependence in this sample (39). Notably, this finding was not replicated in the COGA data set (41). Although preliminary, the studies conducted in the California and Plains Indian populations demonstrate the utility of EEG phenotypes in identifying genetic loci that confer risk for these disorders.
Another endophenotype that has been described is related to an individual’s sensitivity to a given substance. A lower individual sensitivity to alcohol has been demonstrated to be an inherited factor that affects the likelihood of drinking and mediates, in part, the disposition for developing alcoholism (15). In one empirical study (14), California Indian participants, similar to Caucasian male offspring of alcoholic parents, were found to have less intense objective and subjective effects of alcohol in an alcohol challenge paradigm. Additionally, participants with at least 50% Native American heritage reported less intense effects of alcohol than those with less than 50% Native American heritage, despite equivalent blood alcohol concentrations. More recently, Ehlers et al. (42) asked participants in the California Indian population to provide retrospective reports, using the Self-Rating of the Effects of Alcohol questionnaire, of their responses to alcohol during the first five times they had ever drank. A linkage analysis using these responses as the phenotype revealed loci on chromosomes 6q25.2 and 9p24.1 that had a LOD score >3.0. Like the EEG studies previously described, these studies provide support for the use of an individual’s sensitivity to a given substance as an important endophenotype for alcohol and other substance use disorders in Native Americans, as well as in general population samples (42).
The linkage findings for substance use phenotypes in Native Americans are summarized in Table 1.
TABLE 1. Summary of Findings From Linkage Studies of Alcohol and Other Drug Dependence and Related Phenotypes in Native Americans
ChromosomeTraitLocation (cM)aLODaNearest MarkerLinkage Evidence in Native Americans (Study)
1EEG alpha power124.25D1S214/D1S450Ehlers et al. 2010 (37)
Antisocial personality disorder/conduct disorder2562.0D1S2670Ehlers et al. 2008 (30)
2EEG alpha power922.66D2S286Ehlers et al. 2010 (37)
EEG beta power2442.1Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
3Alcohol craving1422.24D3S1292Ehlers et al. 2005 (16)
Antisocial personality disorder/conduct disorder1932.3D3S3609Ehlers et al. 2008 (30)
4EEG theta power402.5Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
EEG alpha power482.4Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
Alcohol dependence592.8D4S3242Long et al. 1998 (18)
Antisocial personality disorder/conduct disorder662.0D4S428Ehlers et al. 2008 (30)
EEG alpha power932.25D4S2460Ehlers et al. 2010 (37)
Severe alcohol use1032.9D4S414Ehlers et al. 2004 (20)
5EEG theta power762.2Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
EEG beta power903.5Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
EEG alpha power933.5Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
Alcohol craving1174.55D5S2084Ehlers et al. 2005 (16)
6Alcohol craving82.14D6S309/D6S470Ehlers et al. 2005 (16)
Alcohol withdrawal473.26D6S1610Ehlers et al. 2004 (20)
EEG alpha power503.9D6S1575Ehlers et al. 2010 (37)
Regular tobacco use50-752.0D6S1575Ehlers et al. 2006 (25)
First five alcoholic drinksb1473.86D6S441Ehlers et al. 2010 (42)
Body mass index (BMI)1512.3D6S1577Ehlers et al. 2007 (17)
Any drug dependence1573.3D6S1581Ehlers et al. 2007 (17)
8BMI72.3D8S277Ehlers et al. 2007 (17)
Regular tobacco use1102.0D8S1762Ehlers et al. 2006 (25)
9First five alcoholic drinksb114.5D9S1810Ehlers et al. 2010 (42)
10First five alcoholic drinksb872.7D10S581/D10S210Ehlers et al. 2010 (42)
EEG beta power1102.5Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
11Alcohol dependence43.1D11S1984Long et al. 1998 (18)
First five alcoholic drinksb131.97D11S1760Ehlers et al. 2010 (42)
EEG alpha power302.98D11S4115Ehlers et al. 2010 (37)
EEG alpha power1142.2Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
12Stimulant craving52.11D12S352/D12S1725Ehlers et al. 2011 (24)
Severe alcohol use1552.14D12S1675/D12S1659Ehlers et al. 2004 (20)
First five alcoholic drinksb1792.43D12S1638Ehlers et al. 2010 (42)
13Antisocial personality disorder192.1D13S289Ehlers et al. 2008 (30)
14Antisocial personality disorder/conduct disorder862.2D14S68Ehlers et al. 2008 (30)
EEG alpha power1132.13D14S65Ehlers et al. 2010 (37)
15Alcohol withdrawal51-752.13/2.27D15S1036/D15S152Ehlers et al. 2004 (20)
Heavy stimulant use772.05D15S979Ehlers et al. 2011 (24)
Stimulant craving833.02D15S127Ehlers et al. 2011 (24)
16Alcohol withdrawal62.02D16S3027Ehlers et al. 2004 (20)
EEG alpha power692.07D16S415/D16S3140Ehlers et al. 2010 (37)
Cannabis dependence with externalizing behavior1394.4D16S520Ehlers et al. 2009 (23)
17First five alcoholic drinksb1012.87D17S1807Ehlers et al. 2010 (42)
Antisocial personality disorder/conduct disorder1292.1D17S928Ehlers et al. 2008 (30)
18BMI142.2D18S1132Ehlers et al. 2007 (17)
Stimulant craving1132.55D18S469Ehlers et al. 2011 (24)
19Cannabis dependence with externalizing behavior746.4D19S902Ehlers et al. 2009 (23)
20Antisocial personality disorder/conduct disorder402.0D20S912Ehlers et al. 2008 (30)
22EEG theta power203.2Not reportedEnoch et al. 2008 (35)
EEG alpha power292.38D22S280/D22S277Ehlers et al. 2010 (37)
a
cM=centimorgans; LOD=log of the odds.
b
The first five alcoholic drinks trait refers to participants’ retrospective reports on the Self-Rating of the Effects of Alcohol questionnaire of their responses to alcohol during the first five times they had ever drank alcohol.

Candidate Gene Studies for Alcohol and Other Drug Dependence in Native Americans

The genes involved in alcohol metabolism represent obvious candidate genes for alcohol use disorders and thus have been the focus of much research in a number of different ethnic populations. The seven alcohol dehydrogenase genes (ADH7, ADH1C, ADH1B, ADH1A, ADH6, ADH4, and ADH5) are located in a single cluster on chromosome 4q21–24, with each gene coding for a unique isozyme. The relationship between this chromosomal region and alcohol dependence has been reported in a number of linkage studies of diverse ethnic groups, including Native Americans (20), and association studies have produced replicable evidence of association between polymorphisms in these genes and alcohol-related phenotypes in Native Americans. For example, two functional polymorphisms identified in the ADH1B gene have been used to describe the presence of three alleles: ADH1B*1, ADH1B*2 (identified by rs1229984), and ADH1B*3 (identified by rs2066702). The ADH1B*2 and ADH1B*3 alleles have demonstrated a protective relation with alcohol dependence and related phenotypes in Asian and Caucasian samples and in African American samples, respectively, and both alleles have been observed in the studied Native American populations. The ADH1B*2 allele was observed in both the California and Southwest American Indian populations. The ADH1B*3 allele, which has only been observed in the California Indian population, has been associated with reduced risk for alcohol dependence, reduced alcohol consumption, and reduced risk for alcohol withdrawal (43, 44). However, studies of other Native American samples did not report the presence of the ADH1B*3 allele (45). Additionally, a polymorphism in the promoter region of ADH4 (rs3762894) that has been shown to produce a more active version of the alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme (46) has demonstrated a protective association with alcohol misuse phenotypes in multiple Caucasian and Native American populations. This polymorphism has shown evidence of association with reduced risk for alcohol withdrawal in the California Indian population (43) and with reduced risk for alcohol dependence in the Southwest American and Plains Indian populations (45). Although an initial study (47) suggested a relationship between a functional polymorphism in ADH1C (rs698), subsequent studies have not detected a relationship between alcohol misuse phenotypes and ADH1C polymorphisms (43, 45), including a proline-theonin substitution in codon 351 of ADH1C (rs35719513) that has been observed almost exclusively in Native American populations (48).
The two aldehyde dehydrogenase genes involved in alcohol metabolism are ALDH1A, located on chromosome 9q21.13, and ALDH2, located on chromosome 12q24.2. The ALDH2 enzyme is the primary enzyme responsible for acetaldehyde metabolism, and a mutation in ALDH2 (commonly referred to as the ALDH2*2 allele) produces a largely inactive aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme that leads to elevated acetaldehyde levels when alcohol is consumed. The ALDH2*2 allele has been shown to produce an aversive flushing reaction and an increased level of response to alcohol that is associated with lower rates of alcohol use and alcoholism in Japanese and Chinese samples, demonstrating its protective effect against the development of alcoholism (46). Nonetheless, this allele does not appear to be present in Native American populations (49).
The ALDH1A1 gene appears to play a lesser role in acetaldehyde metabolism relative to ALDH2, but a growing number of studies suggest that this gene contains one or more polymorphisms that influence alcohol-related phenotypes in Native American populations. One of the earliest reported results involved a 17-base-pair deletion in the promoter region of ALDH1A1, commonly referred to as the ALDH1A1*2 allele. Similar to reports of ALDH2 in Far East Asian populations, this allele has been associated with a reduced risk of alcohol dependence, reduced alcohol consumption, and reduced risk of cigarette smoking (50). Additional polymorphisms in ALDH1A1 have shown relations with alcohol dependence in the Southwest American and Plains Indian populations (45), as well as in Caucasian populations (51). Thus, ALDH1A1 represents an interesting candidate gene with respect to alcoholism in several populations, including Native Americans.
Investigations of candidate genes other than those coding for alcohol metabolizing enzymes in Native American populations have thus far included genes involved in drug-reward pathways, serotonergic genes, and positional candidates based on previous linkage studies. For example, polymorphisms in the CNR1 gene, which encodes for the cannabinoid receptor type 1, have been related to a number of alcohol, cannabis, and other substance use phenotypes in multiple populations, including the COGA sample (52). In the California Indian sample, CNR1 polymorphisms were associated with a trait measure of impulsivity (53). Trait impulsivity is hypothesized to underlie the lack of behavioral control associated with substance use disorders, and thus this finding suggests that CNR1 may act as a general risk factor for alcohol and drug misuse.
In the Southwest American and Plains Indian populations, associations between alcohol-related phenotypes and polymorphisms in several GABA receptor genes have been tested. A region of chromosome 4p containing GABRA2, GABRB1, and the GABAG1 receptor gene (GABRG1) has been identified as a susceptibility locus in previous linkage scans of alcohol dependence and quantitative EEG traits in the COGA sample (34). Additionally, polymorphisms in GABRA2 and GABRG1 have shown evidence of association with alcohol use phenotypes (40). In the Plains Indian sample, GABRA2 and GABRG1 polymorphisms have yielded evidence of association with alcohol use diagnoses (54, 55). In the Southwest American Indian sample, a second GABA receptor gene cluster located on chromosome 5q34, containing the GABA1A (GABRA1), GABA6A (GABRA6), GABAB2 (GABRB2), and GABAG2 (GABRG2) receptor genes, has also yielded evidence of association with alcohol dependence, with evidence suggesting that the association is due to a causal variant in GABRA6 (56). Studies of other ethnic groups, including Caucasian (57) and Asian (58) populations, have reported similar associations with GABRA6 polymorphisms.
Other candidate genes that have shown evidence of association with alcohol and other drug misuse phenotypes in Native Americans include the OPRM1 gene, which encodes for the mu opioid receptor and is the primary site of action for opioids such as morphine and heroin (59), the serotonin 1B receptor gene (HTR1B) (60), the catechol O-methyltransferase gene (COMT), which encodes for an enzyme involved in synaptic dopamine metabolism, and the alpha-synuclein gene (SNCA), which encodes for a protein involved in dopamine neurotransmission. These and additional candidate gene studies of alcohol and other substance misuse phenotypes in Native American samples are summarized in Table 2, which highlights that with a few exceptions, these genes have been investigated in only a single study. Additionally, each of these genes has been studied in relation to alcohol and drug-related phenotypes in other ethnic groups, yielding a mix of both positive and negative results (21, 61). Thus, given the low replication rate that has been noted for candidate gene studies of complex traits in general and for the relationships between the described candidate genes and alcohol and substance use phenotypes specifically, it is important to note the preliminary nature of these findings and the need for additional studies in larger Native American samples.
TABLE 2. Summary of Candidate Gene Studies of Alcohol and Other Substance Misuse Phenotypes in Native Americans
GeneChromosomePolymorphismPhenotypePopulationStudy
ADH1B4q23ADH1B*3 (rs2066702)Alcohol dependence, alcohol consumptionCalifornia IndianWall et al. 2003 (44)
Alcohol withdrawalCalifornia IndianGizer et al. 2011 (43)
ADH1C4q23HaeIII (rs1693425), Ile349Val (rs698)Alcohol dependence, binge drinkingSouthwest American IndianMulligan et al. 2003 (47)
ADH44q23rs3762894Alcohol dependencePlains Indian, Southwest American IndianLiu et al. 2011 (45)
Alcohol withdrawalCalifornia IndianGizer et al. 2011 (43)
ALDH1A19q21.13ALDH1A1*2 alleleAlcohol dependence, Alcohol consumption, cigarette smokingCalifornia IndianEhlers et al. 2004 (50)
rs1424482, rs8187876, rs2249978, rs1418187, rs4745209Alcohol dependencePlains Indian, Southwest American IndianLiu et al. 2011 (45)
CNR16q15AATn triplet repeat, rs1535255, rs2023239, rs1049353, rs806368ImpulsivityCalifornia IndianEhlers et al. 2007 (53)
COMT22q11.21Val158Met (rs4680)Alcohol dependence among cigarette smokers (female only)Plains IndianEnoch et al. 2006 (67)
GABRA24p12rs279858, rs279863Alcohol dependencePlains IndianEnoch et al. 2006 (54)
GABRA65q341519T>C (rs3219151)Alcohol dependenceSouthwest American IndianRadel et al. 2005 (56)
GABRB25q341412C>T (rs2229944)Alcohol dependenceSouthwest American IndianRadel et al. 2005 (56)
GABRG14p12rs1497575, rs6824361, rs6813633, rs12511372Alcohol dependencePlains IndianEnoch et al. 2009 (55)
GAL11q13.3rs4930241, rs4930241Alcohol dependencePlains IndianBelfer et al. 2006 (68)
HTR1B6q14.1G861C (rs6296), D6S284Alcohol dependence with antisocial behaviorSouthwest American IndianLappalainen et al. 1998 (60)
HNMT2q22.1Thr105Ile (rs11558538)Alcohol dependencePlains IndianOroszi et al. 2005 (69)
OPRM16q25.2Asn40Asp (rs1799971), IVS2+691G/CNo observed associationSouthwest American IndianBergen et al. 1997 (70)
rs553202, rs524731, rs3778148, rs1461773, rs2075572, rs548646, rs681243Sensitivity to alcoholCalifornia IndianEhlers et al. 2008 (59)
SNCA4q22.1rs2583978, rs356186, rs356198, rs3775423Drug dependenceSouthwest American IndianClarimon et al. 2007 (71)
rs356163Alcohol dependence (male only)Plains IndianClarimon et al. 2007 (71)
Candidate gene studies of some substance-related endophenotypes have also been conducted. For example, a study of the Plains Indian sample suggested that EEG alpha power, which was related to comorbid alcohol dependence and antisocial personality disorder, demonstrated a significant relation with polymorphisms in the serotonin 3B receptor gene (HTR3B) (62). EEG alpha power also demonstrated a relation with the same COMT polymorphism that was associated with alcoholism and smoking among women in the Plains Indian sample (63). Thus, these studies provide further support for the use of EEG measures as endophenotypes for alcohol and other substance use disorders.
A final area of study to be discussed in the context of candidate gene studies is gene-environment interaction studies. Several gene-environment interaction studies of substance use disorders have been conducted using Caucasian samples, but only one such study has been conducted in a Native American population. That study investigated whether a relationship between a functional polymorphism in the monoamine oxidase A gene (MAOA) and alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder was moderated by childhood sexual abuse in the Southwest American Indian population (36). The MAOA gene has been previously implicated in antisocial personality disorder, and in one of the first gene-environment interaction studies conducted, the relationship between MAOA and antisocial behavior was moderated by childhood maltreatment such that individuals possessing the high-risk genotype and were abused in childhood were more likely to exhibit antisocial behavior later in life compared with individuals in the other groups (64). A similar interaction was observed in women from the Southwest American Indian population, in which those with the high-risk genotype were more likely to develop comorbid alcohol dependence and antisocial personality disorder but only if they were exposed to childhood sexual abuse. Although preliminary, that study highlights the potential effect of gene-by-environment interaction studies.

Discussion

We began this review with a summary of quantitative genetic studies establishing the heritability of substance misuse diagnoses, as well as the increased heritability of a more severe form of alcohol and drug dependence characterized by symptoms of increased tolerance and withdrawal. We then presented evidence from linkage analyses and candidate gene studies suggesting relationships between specific genes and genomic regions and substance use diagnoses. The reviewed linkage analyses suggest that the genes influencing risk for substance dependence and related phenotypes, such as BMI, drug sensitivity or tolerance, EEG patterns, and antisocial personality traits, are many and reside on several chromosomal regions (Table 1). It appears that these regions are not unique to Native Americans, since similar findings have been reported in studies of other ethnic (primarily Caucasian) groups. Some overlap in the gene locations for substance dependence and BMI has been found, suggesting the possibility of a common genetic substrate for disorders of consumption.
Our review of candidate gene studies revealed a number of polymorphisms that have been found to be associated with substance dependence phenotypes in Native Americans. The strongest results were reported from studies investigating the genes that code for alcohol metabolizing enzymes, including variants in ADH1B (rs1229984 and rs2066702) and ADH4 (rs3762849). Notably, these results were not always consistent across tribal groups. Some of these differences may be the result of population differences, such as the observed association of the ADH1B*3 allele (rs2066702) in the California Indian sample and the absence of this allele in the other tribal groups examined. Others, such as the ADH1B*2 allele (rs1229984) and rs3762849 in ADH4, were more likely the result of inadequate sample sizes given that the direction of effect was consistent across studies. Larger studies including a greater number of tribal groups are needed to definitively test these conclusions. Thus far, the reviewed studies suggest that some Native American tribes appear to lack protective variants in alcohol metabolizing enzyme genes (the ALDH2*2 and ADH1B*3 alleles) that are seen in East Asian and some African populations, but they provide little overall support for the theory that Native American groups have an “unusual” metabolism of alcohol. Additional genes that code for neurotransmitter receptors and neuromodulators, including OPRM1, CRN1, COMT, GABRA2, MAOA, and HTR3-B, have shown preliminary evidence for association with substance use phenotypes in some tribal groups (Table 2). However, these associations have also been reported for other ethnic groups and also provide little evidence to support a genetic association specific to a Native American tribal group or to the Native American population as a whole.
Taken together, the results of genetics studies conducted to date suggest that the genetic influences contributing to substance use, abuse, and dependence in Native American populations are likely similar in kind and in magnitude to the genetic influences contributing to the liability for these phenotypes in other ethnic groups. One previous study demonstrated that a correlation exists between degree of Native American ancestry and substance dependence phenotypes (20), but it remains to be seen whether this relationship is due to genetic or environmental factors. Nonetheless, this is an important issue deserving of further study because genetic methodology has demonstrated an advantage in examining Native populations, even when recent admixture between the population isolate and outside populations have occurred, if the phenotype of interest is correlated with degree of ancestry from the population isolate (65). It is likely that more advanced genetic techniques, such as genome-wide association studies, sequencing strategies, and investigations of copy number variation, combined with admixture analyses, will shed further light on this issue. Additionally, a number of environmental factors could be targeted to potentially reduce rates of substance dependence. These include general economic and educational conditions, personal and historical trauma (9, 10), and early age at onset of drinking (11), as well as lack of contingency between access to basic life reinforcers (e.g., employment, housing, education, and health care) and sobriety (12). Interventions that address underage drinking, such as motivational interviewing (66), as well as tribal agreements to address social norms concerning drug and alcohol use and associated trauma, have the potential to substantially reduce substance use in these populations. Additional studies of the genetics of substance abuse in Native Americans are recommended, especially when key environmental variables are accounted for and gene-environment interplay can be assessed.

Footnote

Supported in part by National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse grant AA010201 to Dr. Ehlers and National Institute on Drug Abuse grant DA030976 to Drs. Ehlers and Gizer.

References

1.
U S Indian Health Service, Division of Program Statistics: Trends in Indian Health. Rockville, Md, U S Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Indian Health Service, 1997
2.
Compton WM, Thomas YF, Stinson FS, Grant BF: Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV drug abuse and dependence in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64:566–576
3.
Wu LT, Woody GE, Yang C, Pan JJ, Blazer DG: Racial/ethnic variations in substance-related disorders among adolescents in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011; 68:1176–1185
4.
Beals J, Novins DK, Whitesell NR, Spicer P, Mitchell CM, Manson SM: Prevalence of mental disorders and utilization of mental health services in two American Indian reservation populations: mental health disparities in a national context. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162:1723–1732
5.
Ehlers CL, Wall TL, Betancourt M, Gilder DA: The clinical course of alcoholism in 243 Mission Indians. Am J Psychiatry 2004; 161:1204–1210
6.
Robin RW, Long JC, Rasmussen JK, Albaugh B, Goldman D: Relationship of binge drinking to alcohol dependence, other psychiatric disorders, and behavioral problems in an American Indian tribe. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1998; 22:518–523
7.
Hasin DS, Stinson FS, Ogburn E, Grant BF: Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007; 64:830–842
8.
Levy JE, Kunitz SJ: Indian drinking: Navajo practices and Anglo-American theories. New York, Wiley-Interscience, 1974
9.
Robin RW, Chester B, Rasmussen JK, Jaranson JM, Goldman D: Prevalence and characteristics of trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a southwestern American Indian community. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154:1582–1588
10.
Les Whitbeck B, Chen X, Hoyt DR, Adams GW: Discrimination, historical loss and enculturation: culturally specific risk and resiliency factors for alcohol abuse among American Indians. J Stud Alcohol 2004; 65:409–418
11.
Ehlers CL, Slutske WS, Gilder DA, Lau P, Wilhelmsen KC: Age at first intoxication and alcohol use disorders in Southwest California Indians. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2006; 30:1856–1865
12.
Spillane NS, Smith GT: A theory of reservation-dwelling American Indian alcohol use risk. Psychol Bull 2007; 133:395–418
13.
Leland J: Firewater myths: North American Indian drinking and alcohol addiction. New Brunswick, NJ, Publications Division, Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, 1976
14.
Garcia-Andrade C, Wall TL, Ehlers CL: The firewater myth and response to alcohol in Mission Indians. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154:983–988
15.
Schuckit MA, Smith TL: An 8-year follow-up of 450 sons of alcoholic and control subjects. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996; 53:202–210
16.
Ehlers CL, Wilhelmsen KC: Genomic scan for alcohol craving in Mission Indians. Psychiatr Genet 2005; 15:71–75
17.
Ehlers CL, Wilhelmsen KC: Genomic screen for substance dependence and body mass index in southwest California Indians. Genes Brain Behav 2007; 6:184–191
18.
Long JC, Knowler WC, Hanson RL, Robin RW, Urbanek M, Moore E, Bennett PH, Goldman D: Evidence for genetic linkage to alcohol dependence on chromosomes 4 and 11 from an autosome-wide scan in an American Indian population. Am J Med Genet 1998; 81:216–221
19.
Wilhelmsen KC, Ehlers C: Heritability of substance dependence in a native American population. Psychiatr Genet 2005; 15:101–107
20.
Ehlers CL, Gilder DA, Wall TL, Phillips E, Feiler H, Wilhelmsen KC: Genomic screen for loci associated with alcohol dependence in Mission Indians. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2004; 129B:110–115
21.
Gelernter J, Kranzler HR: Genetics of drug dependence. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2010; 12:77–84
22.
Slutske WS, True WR, Scherrer JF, Heath AC, Bucholz KK, Eisen SA, Goldberg J, Lyons MJ, Tsuang MT: The heritability of alcoholism symptoms: “indicators of genetic and environmental influence in alcohol-dependent individuals” revisited. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999; 23:759–769
23.
Ehlers CL, Gilder DA, Gizer IR, Wilhelmsen KC: Heritability and a genome-wide linkage analysis of a Type II/B cluster construct for cannabis dependence in an American Indian community. Addict Biol 2009; 14:338–348
24.
Ehlers CL, Gizer IR, Gilder DA, Wilhelmsen KC: Linkage analyses of stimulant dependence, craving, and heavy use in American Indians. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2011; 156B:772–780
25.
Ehlers CL, Wilhelmsen KC: Genomic screen for loci associated with tobacco usage in Mission Indians. BMC Med Genet 2006; 7:9
26.
Kendler KS, Karkowski LM, Neale MC, Prescott CA: Illicit psychoactive substance use, heavy use, abuse, and dependence in a US population-based sample of male twins. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57:261–269
27.
Gilder DA, Wall TL, Ehlers CL: Comorbidity of select anxiety and affective disorders with alcohol dependence in southwest California Indians. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2004; 28:1805–1813
28.
Hesselbrock MN, Hesselbrock VM, Segal B, Schuckit MA, Bucholz K: Ethnicity and psychiatric comorbidity among alcohol-dependent persons who receive inpatient treatment: African Americans, Alaska natives, Caucasians, and Hispanics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2003; 27:1368–1373
29.
Kunitz SJ, Gabriel KR, Levy JE, Henderson E, Lampert K, McCloskey J, Quintero G, Russell S, Vince A: Alcohol dependence and conduct disorder among Navajo Indians. J Stud Alcohol 1999; 60:159–167
30.
Ehlers CL, Gilder DA, Slutske WS, Lind PA, Wilhelmsen KC: Externalizing disorders in American Indians: comorbidity and a genome wide linkage analysis. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2008; 147B:690–698
31.
Stallings MC, Corley RP, Hewitt JK, Krauter KS, Lessem JM, Mikulich SK, Rhee SH, Smolen A, Young SE, Crowley TJ: A genome-wide search for quantitative trait loci influencing substance dependence vulnerability in adolescence. Drug Alcohol Depend 2003; 70:295–307
32.
Begleiter H, Porjesz B: What is inherited in the predisposition toward alcoholism? A proposed model. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1999; 23:1125–1135
33.
Ehlers CL, Gilder DA, Phillips E: P3 components of the event-related potential and marijuana dependence in Southwest California Indians. Addict Biol 2008; 13:130–142
34.
Porjesz B, Almasy L, Edenberg HJ, Wang K, Chorlian DB, Foroud T, Goate A, Rice JP, O’Connor SJ, Rohrbaugh J, Kuperman S, Bauer LO, Crowe RR, Schuckit MA, Hesselbrock V, Conneally PM, Tischfield JA, Li TK, Reich T, Begleiter H: Linkage disequilibrium between the beta frequency of the human EEG and a GABAA receptor gene locus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002; 99:3729–3733
35.
Enoch MA, Shen PH, Ducci F, Yuan Q, Liu J, White KV, Albaugh B, Hodgkinson CA, Goldman D: Common genetic origins for EEG, alcoholism and anxiety: the role of CRH-BP. PLoS ONE 2008; 3:e3620
36.
Ducci F, Enoch MA, Hodgkinson C, Xu K, Catena M, Robin RW, Goldman D: Interaction between a functional MAOA locus and childhood sexual abuse predicts alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder in adult women. Mol Psychiatry 2008; 13:334–347
37.
Ehlers CL, Gizer IR, Phillips E, Wilhelmsen KC: EEG alpha phenotypes: linkage analyses and relation to alcohol dependence in an American Indian community study. BMC Med Genet 2010; 11:43
38.
Ehlers CL, Phillips E, Gizer IR, Gilder DA, Wilhelmsen KC: EEG spectral phenotypes: heritability and association with marijuana and alcohol dependence in an American Indian community study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2010; 106:101–110
39.
Hodgkinson CA, Enoch MA, Srivastava V, Cummins-Oman JS, Ferrier C, Iarikova P, Sankararaman S, Yamini G, Yuan Q, Zhou Z, Albaugh B, White KV, Shen PH, Goldman D: Genome-wide association identifies candidate genes that influence the human electroencephalogram. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107:8695–8700
40.
Edenberg HJ, Dick DM, Xuei X, Tian H, Almasy L, Bauer LO, Crowe RR, Goate A, Hesselbrock V, Jones K, Kwon J, Li TK, Nurnberger JI, O’Connor SJ, Reich T, Rice J, Schuckit MA, Porjesz B, Foroud T, Begleiter H: Variations in GABRA2, encoding the alpha 2 subunit of the GABA(A) receptor, are associated with alcohol dependence and with brain oscillations. Am J Hum Genet 2004; 74:705–714
41.
Derringer J, Krueger RF, Manz N, Porjesz B, Almasy L, Bookman E, Edenberg HJ, Kramer JR, Tischfield JA, Bierut LJ: Nonreplication of an association of SGIP1 SNPs with alcohol dependence and resting theta EEG power. Psychiatr Genet 2011; 21:265–266
42.
Ehlers CL, Gizer IR, Schuckit MA, Wilhelmsen KC: Genome-wide scan for self-rating of the effects of alcohol in American Indians. Psychiatr Genet 2010; 20:221–228
43.
Gizer IR, Edenberg HJ, Gilder DA, Wilhelmsen KC, Ehlers CL: Association of alcohol dehydrogenase genes with alcohol-related phenotypes in a Native American community sample. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2011; 35:2008–2018
44.
Wall TL, Carr LG, Ehlers CL: Protective association of genetic variation in alcohol dehydrogenase with alcohol dependence in Native American Mission Indians. Am J Psychiatry 2003; 160:41–46
45.
Liu J, Zhou Z, Hodgkinson CA, Yuan Q, Shen PH, Mulligan CJ, Wang A, Gray RR, Roy A, Virkkunen M, Goldman D, Enoch MA: Haplotype-based study of the association of alcohol-metabolizing genes with alcohol dependence in four independent populations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2011; 35:304–316
46.
Edenberg HJ: The genetics of alcohol metabolism: role of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase variants. Alcohol Res Health 2007; 30:5–13
47.
Mulligan CJ, Robin RW, Osier MV, Sambuughin N, Goldfarb LG, Kittles RA, Hesselbrock D, Goldman D, Long JC: Allelic variation at alcohol metabolism genes ( ADH1B, ADH1C, ALDH2) and alcohol dependence in an American Indian population. Hum Genet 2003; 113:325–336
48.
Osier MV, Pakstis AJ, Goldman D, Edenberg HJ, Kidd JR, Kidd KK: A proline-threonine substitution in codon 351 of ADH1C is common in Native Americans. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002; 26:1759–1763
49.
Rex DK, Bosron WF, Smialek JE, Li TK: Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase isoenzymes in North American Indians. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1985; 9:147–152
50.
Ehlers CL, Spence JP, Wall TL, Gilder DA, Carr LG: Association of ALDH1 promoter polymorphisms with alcohol-related phenotypes in southwest California Indians. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2004; 28:1481–1486
51.
Lind PA, Eriksson CJ, Wilhelmsen KC: The role of aldehyde dehydrogenase-1 (ALDH1A1) polymorphisms in harmful alcohol consumption in a Finnish population. Hum Genomics 2008; 3:24–35
52.
Agrawal A, Wetherill L, Dick DM, Xuei X, Hinrichs A, Hesselbrock V, Kramer J, Nurnberger JI, Schuckit M, Bierut LJ, Edenberg HJ, Foroud T: Evidence for association between polymorphisms in the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) gene and cannabis dependence. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2009; 150B:736–740
53.
Ehlers CL, Slutske WS, Lind PA, Wilhelmsen KC: Association between single nucleotide polymorphisms in the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) and impulsivity in southwest California Indians. Twin Res Hum Genet 2007; 10:805–811
54.
Enoch MA, Schwartz L, Albaugh B, Virkkunen M, Goldman D: Dimensional anxiety mediates linkage of GABRA2 haplotypes with alcoholism. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2006; 141B:599–607
55.
Enoch MA, Hodgkinson CA, Yuan Q, Albaugh B, Virkkunen M, Goldman D: GABRG1 and GABRA2 as independent predictors for alcoholism in two populations. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009; 34:1245–1254
56.
Radel M, Vallejo RL, Iwata N, Aragon R, Long JC, Virkkunen M, Goldman D: Haplotype-based localization of an alcohol dependence gene to the 5q34 gamma-aminobutyric acid type A gene cluster. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005; 62:47–55
57.
Sander T, Samochowiec J, Ladehoff M, Smolka M, Peters C, Riess O, Rommelspacher H, Schmidt LG: Association analysis of exonic variants of the gene encoding the GABAB receptor and alcohol dependence. Psychiatr Genet 1999; 9:69–73
58.
Park CS, Park SY, Lee CS, Sohn JW, Hahn GH, Kim BJ: Association between alcoholism and the genetic polymorphisms of the GABAA receptor genes on chromosome 5q33-34 in Korean population. J Korean Med Sci 2006; 21:533–538
59.
Ehlers CL, Lind PA, Wilhelmsen KC: Association between single nucleotide polymorphisms in the mu opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) and self-reported responses to alcohol in American Indians. BMC Med Genet 2008; 9:35
60.
Lappalainen J, Long JC, Eggert M, Ozaki N, Robin RW, Brown GL, Naukkarinen H, Virkkunen M, Linnoila M, Goldman D: Linkage of antisocial alcoholism to the serotonin 5-HT1B receptor gene in 2 populations. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55:989–994
61.
Kimura M, Higuchi S: Genetics of alcohol dependence. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2011; 65:213–225
62.
Ducci F, Enoch MA, Yuan Q, Shen PH, White KV, Hodgkinson C, Albaugh B, Virkkunen M, Goldman D: HTR3B is associated with alcoholism with antisocial behavior and alpha EEG power—an intermediate phenotype for alcoholism and co-morbid behaviors. Alcohol 2009; 43:73–84
63.
Enoch MA, Xu K, Ferro E, Harris CR, Goldman D: Genetic origins of anxiety in women: a role for a functional catechol-O-methyltransferase polymorphism. Psychiatr Genet 2003; 13:33–41
64.
Caspi A, McClay J, Moffitt TE, Mill J, Martin J, Craig IW, Taylor A, Poulton R: Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 2002; 297:851–854
65.
Seldin MF: Admixture mapping as a tool in gene discovery. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2007; 17:177–181
66.
Gilder DA, Luna JA, Calac D, Moore RS, Monti PM, Ehlers CL: Acceptability of the use of motivational interviewing to reduce underage drinking in a Native American community. Subst Use Misuse 2011; 46:836–842
67.
Enoch MA, Waheed JF, Harris CR, Albaugh B, Goldman D: Sex differences in the influence of COMT Val158Met on alcoholism and smoking in plains American Indians. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2006; 30:399–406
68.
Belfer I, Hipp H, McKnight C, Evans C, Buzas B, Bollettino A, Albaugh B, Virkkunen M, Yuan Q, Max MB, Goldman D, Enoch MA: Association of galanin haplotypes with alcoholism and anxiety in two ethnically distinct populations. Mol Psychiatry 2006; 11:301–311
69.
Oroszi G, Enoch MA, Chun J, Virkkunen M, Goldman D: Thr105Ile, a functional polymorphism of histamine N-methyltransferase, is associated with alcoholism in two independent populations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2005; 29:303–309
70.
Bergen AW, Kokoszka J, Peterson R, Long JC, Virkkunen M, Linnoila M, Goldman D: Mu opioid receptor gene variants: lack of association with alcohol dependence. Mol Psychiatry 1997; 2:490–494
71.
Clarimon J, Gray RR, Williams LN, Enoch MA, Robin RW, Albaugh B, Singleton A, Goldman D, Mulligan CJ: Linkage disequilibrium and association analysis of alpha-synuclein and alcohol and drug dependence in two American Indian populations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007; 31:546–554

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to American Journal of Psychiatry
Go to American Journal of Psychiatry
American Journal of Psychiatry
Pages: 154 - 164
PubMed: 23377636

History

Received: 23 January 2012
Revision received: 7 June 2012
Revision received: 21 August 2012
Accepted: 27 August 2012
Published online: 1 February 2013
Published in print: February 2013

Authors

Details

Cindy L. Ehlers, Ph.D.
From the Department of Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences, the Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, Calif.; and the Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.
Ian R. Gizer, Ph.D.
From the Department of Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences, the Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, Calif.; and the Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.

Notes

Address correspondence to Dr. Ehlers ([email protected]).

Funding Information

The authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests.

Metrics & Citations

Metrics

Citations

Export Citations

If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.

For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu.

Format
Citation style
Style
Copy to clipboard

View Options

View options

PDF/EPUB

View PDF/EPUB

Get Access

Login options

Already a subscriber? Access your subscription through your login credentials or your institution for full access to this article.

Personal login Institutional Login Open Athens login
Purchase Options

Purchase this article to access the full text.

PPV Articles - American Journal of Psychiatry

PPV Articles - American Journal of Psychiatry

Not a subscriber?

Subscribe Now / Learn More

PsychiatryOnline subscription options offer access to the DSM-5-TR® library, books, journals, CME, and patient resources. This all-in-one virtual library provides psychiatrists and mental health professionals with key resources for diagnosis, treatment, research, and professional development.

Need more help? PsychiatryOnline Customer Service may be reached by emailing [email protected] or by calling 800-368-5777 (in the U.S.) or 703-907-7322 (outside the U.S.).

Media

Figures

Other

Tables

Share

Share

Share article link

Share