Abuse,38–40as a risk factor for personality disorders,122ADHD,xix, 65–70age at onset,67alcoholism and,108boundaries of,65–67construct of,66description in DSM-5,65diagnosis of,66environmental stressors of,68–69gene-environment interactions of,69–70genetic predispositions of,67–68personality disorders and,121prevalence of,66symptoms in adulthood,67Adoption studies. See also Twinsof alcoholism,107criticisms of,24genetics and,23–24Alcoholism. See also Substance-related and addictive disordersADHD and,108early onset of,108genetic predisposition to,107risk for,108sex prevalence of,109ALSPAC. See Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and ChildrenAlzheimer’s disease,52, 143Anorexia nervosaas a culture-bound syndrome,102genetic predispositions to,101–102history of,101psychosocial risk factors for,102–103Antidepressants, for treatment of depression,132Antisocial personality disorderdescription of,114prevalence of,142social factors and,123Anxiety disorders,xxenvironmental stressors in,90–91genetic predisposition to,89–90overview,89personality disorders and,125Attachment theory,91Autism spectrum disorder,40Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC),48Balanced polymorphism,21Behavioral genetics,22antisocial,41implications for psychiatry,24Biomedical model,57Bipolar disordersgender and,86heritability,77Borderline personality disorder (BPD),39description of,113dialectical behavior therapy for treatment of,137treatment model for,139twin studies of,119BPD. See Borderline personality disorderBritish Cohort Study,48Bulimia nervosagenetic predispositions to,103–104predisposition to,104psychosocial risk factors for,104Burghölzli,5Cannabis, schizophrenia and,75Caspi, Avshalom,48–49ChildhoodADHD age at onset,67born during the Dutch famine of 1944–45,77causal explanations for development of mental disorders,33–34diversity,xivearly separation or loss as a risk factor for personality disorders,120latent variables for development of mental disorders in,33–34longitudinal studies of birth cohorts,47–48losses in,86protective influences on,35, 36–37as risk factor for mental illness,76risk factors for development of mental disorders in,33–34social anxiety in,90trauma, abuse, and neglect in,38–40as a risk factor for personality disorders,120trauma and PTSD,96–99vulnerability,37Children in the Community (CIC) Study,47Child sexual abuse (CSA),97CIC. See Children in the Community StudyCognitive-behavioral therapy,138“Combat fatigue,”93–94, 95. See also Posttraumatic stress disorderConduct disorder,70–71environmental predictors of,71genetic factors and,71as heritable,70prevalence of,70Conners Clinical Index,66Conners Comprehensive Behavior Rating Scales,66Coping, resilience and,35CSA. See Child sexual abuseCulture, substance abuse and,111Deathpremature,19suicide,41, 51“Decade of the brain,”viiDepression,xxboundaries of,79–81clinical implications of,131–134comorbidities,79, 82gene-environment interactions in,86–87genetic predispositions for,81–83genetic threshold for,53interpersonal loss and,83–85melancholic type of,80–81neuroticism and,87nonmelancholic type of,80–82persistent,82personality and,133prevalence of,86, 142role of stressors in,83–86sex-linked genetic factors of,86symptoms of,79treatment of,132, 133“treatment-resistant,”7, 8Developmental cascades,33Dialectical behavior therapy, for treatment of BPD,137Diseasechronic,17–19etiology of,18genetic evolution and,20–21genetic susceptibility to,18Divorce,120DNAnoncoding,25testing for risk levels of disease,19Dopamineregulation of,38–39schizophrenia and,74DSM. See also Research Domain CriteriaADHD description in DSM-5,65classification of personality disorders,114comorbidity of diagnoses,57correlation with biological markers,28criteria for validity of psychiatric diagnoses,58diagnosis of MDD,80diagnostic validity of,57–58limits of,55–57overview,55as transdiagnostic system of diagnosis,49–50Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study,48conduct disorder and,71Eating disorders,xxanorexia nervosa,101–103bulimia nervosa,103–104gene-environment interactions in,104–105prevalence of,102sexual selection and,103ECT. See Electroconvulsive therapyElectroconvulsive therapy (ECT),6ENCODE consortium,25Endophenotypes,28Environment. See also Stresseffect on human traits,23equal assumptions of,22genetic susceptibility to chronic disease,18personality disorders and,116–117risk factors for schizophrenia,75–77risk factors for substance abuse,109–111shared,23stressors,xixfor ADHD,68–69in anxiety disorders,90–91early experience and personality,32–34nature of psychological stressors,37–38risk and,31–32studies of environmental stressors in OCD,92trauma, abuse, and neglect and,38–40twin studies and,23unshared,23Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study,50Epigeneticsdescription of,16studies,50–51“Equifinality,”44European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood,48Familybreakdown of,33, 120dysfunction of,37–38history,21–22of depression,81research on,119role in anorexia nervosa,102studies of depressive disorders,83Faraone, S.V.,70Five-Factor Model,115Freud, Sigmund,6–7, 33GAD. See Generalized anxiety disorderGene-environment interaction model,xvii. See also Nature-nurtureadditive genetic and environmental effects,45ADHD and,69–70clinical implications of psychopathology,129–130continuum between health and illness,51–53correlations,45in depression,86–87differential sensitivity,45in eating disorders,104–105emergence,53epigenetic studies,50–51etiological research application,143–144examples of,47forms of interactions,xixgenetic control of exposure to the environment,45“heritability gap,”53longitudinal studies of birth cohorts,47–48longitudinal studies of twins,50network model approach,44“orchids” and”dandelions,”47, 98of personality disorders,123–125personality traits and,45–46of PTSD,94–96reductionism and emergence in,53–54relationship between traits and disorders,44–45for schizophrenia,77sex distribution of,52in substance abuse,112susceptibility to environment,45Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD),89–90comorbidities,90Genetics. See also Natural selectionadoption studies,23–24alcoholism and,109balanced polymorphism,21behavioral,22constraints on individual development,135in development of mental pathology,9endophenotypes,28environmental reduction in psychiatry and,134–136evolution and human disease,20–21family history and,21–22genes regulating serotonin and dopamine,38–39genetic association,25genome-wide association studies,26–27heritability and chronic disease,17–19implications of behavioral genetics for psychiatry,24implications of genetic research for psychiatry,27–29individual differences and,16–17lack of control of,144linkage,25Mendelian heredity,21model fitting,22overview of predispositions,15–16“pleiomorphic” traits,20predispositions and,xviii, 89–90to alcoholism,112for personality disorders,118–119to substance use,107–109psychopathology factor,28–29replication crisis,26risk factors for schizophrenia,73–75susceptibility and,12–13susceptibility to chronic disease,18traits within a population,22transdiagnostic measures,28–29transmission,21trinucleotide repeats,20twin samples to measure heritability,21–23Genome-wide association studies (GWAS),26–27conduct disorder and,70–71Gout,52Great Smoky Mountains Study,47Grief,85Guze, Samuel,58GWAS. See Genome-wide association studiesHeritabilitychronic disease and,17–19description of,21–23“gap”/“missing,”53genetic predisposition for depression,81–83Mendelian,21“missing,”25of personality,23, 115predisposition to mental disorders,43, 142–143using twin samples for measurement,21–23Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP),56HiTOP. See Hierarchical Taxonomy of PsychopathologyHIV infection, genetic resistance to developing,19Holism, description of,130Holocaust,40Human Connectome Project,61. See also Research Domain CriteriaHuman genome, development of,25–26Huntington’s disease,20Hypertension,51–52ICD-11, diagnosis of PTSD,97Insulin therapy,6International Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Foundation Genetics Collaborative (IOCDF-GC),91IOCDF-GC. See International Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Foundation Genetics CollaborativeIQ,11Why Am I?: The Science of Us,48Kandel, Eric,6, 29Kendler, Kenneth,50Kraepelin, Emil,5, 28neo-Kraepelian model,60Life spanadverse life events,31–32genetics and,19Locke, John,10Major depressive disorder (MDD)diagnosis of,132DSM-5 diagnosis of,80–81Marxism,10, 11Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability, and Neurodevelopment (MAVAN) cohort,38–39MAVAN. See Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability, and Neurodevelopment cohortMDD. See Major depressive disorderMeaney, Michael,38, 51Medicationsclinical implications of,129treatment-resistant to,7, 8, 134Melancholia,6Mental disorders. See also DSM; Gene-environment interaction modelADHD,65–70conduct disorder and,xixanxiety disorders,89–91obsessive compulsive disorder and,xxbipolar disorders,77childhood risk factors and causal explanations for development of,33–34, 76clinical implications of,129–139biological reductionism in psychiatry,130–131environmental reductionism in psychiatry,134–136treatment of major depression,131–134conduct disorder,70–71depression,7, 8, 53, 79–88depressive disorders,xxdiagnostic inflation of,59eating disorders,xxanorexia nervosa,101–103bulimia nervosa,103–104generalized anxiety disorder,89–90genetic factors in development of,9heritable,24latent variables in childhood explanations for development of,33–34mood disorders,80“moral treatment” of the insane,5obsessive-compulsive disorder,xx, 91–92panic disorder, 90personality disorders,xx–xxi, 113–125treatment of,136–139posttraumatic stress disorder,xxpredisposition to,43, 135, 142prevalence of,41PTSD,93–99schizophrenia,xx, 73–78sex distribution of,52substance-related and addictive disorders,xx, 107–112traits, disorders, and adaptation of,58–59unemployment and,40Meyer, Adolf,43Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory,56Minnesota Twin Family Study,50Models. See also Conduct disorder; Gene-environment interaction modelbiomedical model,57Five-Factor Model,115gene-environment model of personality disorders,123–125gene-environment model of PTSD,94–96model fitting,22neo-Kraepelinian model,60promotion of psychological models,5of temperament,115–116theoretical models of biological reductionism,xvitreatment model for BPD,139“two-hit model” of carcinogenesis,12Moffitt, Terrie,48–49Mood disorders,80National Child Development Study,48National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH),59National Institute of Mental Health Collaborative Study of Depression,132National Survey of Health and Development,48Natural selection,13. See also Geneticsdescription of,15–16evolution and human disease and,20–21Nature-nurture. See also Gene-environment interaction modelbiopsychosocial model of,xiiiclinical implications of,xxi, 139description of,xidichotomy of,xii“gut reactions” to,145implications for prevention and research,xxi, 141–145integration of,145modern medicine and,11–13in nineteenth-century psychiatry,4–5social sciences and,10–11in twentieth-century psychiatry,5–7in twenty-first-century psychiatry,7–10Neglect,38–40Neo-Kraepelian model,60“Neo-Kraepelinian” school,5Neuroticism, as a risk factor for personality disorders,87, 122NIMH. See National Institute of Mental HealthObesity,102. See also Eating disordersObsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD),xx, 91–92OCD Collaborative Genetics Association Studies (OCGAS),91. See Obsessive-compulsive disorderOCGAS. See OCD Collaborative Genetics Association StudiesOpioid dependence,111“Oriental flush,”108Panic disorder,90, 91Parental Bonding Index,121Parentsabnormal parenting as a risk factor for personality disorders,120blame for life problems,120loss of,86responses to children,39Personalitydepression and,133dimensions,115early experience and,32–34effects of negative life events and,95extraversion-introversion of,17gene-environment interaction model and,45heritability of,23, 115stress and resilience,36–37substance abuse and traits of,111temperament and,115–117traitsas alternative evolutional strategies,118defined,115of siblings,116variance in,117Personality disorders,xx–xxiADHD and,121antisocial personality disorder,114anxiety disorders and,125“autonomous,”82BPD,113Cluster A,125Cluster B,117, 125comorbidities,82description of,113diagnosis and classification of,113–114DSM classification of,114environmental factors and,116–117gene-environment model of,123–125genetic predispositions for,118–119personality traits and,114–116, 117–118progression from traits to disorders,114–115psychological risk factors in,119–122abnormal parenting,120–121childhood trauma,121–122early separation or loss,120overview,119–120social factors in,123“sociotropic,”82treatment of,136–139psychotherapy and,136–139P factor. See Psychopathology factorPharmacology, in twenty-first-century psychiatry,7–10Pinel, Philippe,5Pinker, S.,11, 15“Pleiomorphic” traits,20Politics,11Polygenic risk score (PRS),27, 74Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD),xxacute,96childhood trauma and,96–99chronic,96combat exposure of,93–94, 95comorbidities and,94construct of,93–94description of,94development of,39, 93, 95diagnosis of,93–94gene-environment model of,94–96genetic predisposition to,95history of,93–94ICD-11 diagnosis of,97symptoms of,93–94twin studies,95PRS. See Polygenic risk scorePsychiatric Genome-Wide Association Study Consortium,65Psychiatrists, “directive-organic” versus”analytic-psychological,”3Psychiatry. See also Research Domain Criteriaclinical implications of reductionism ienvironmental,134–136clinical implications of reductionism in,130–131DSM criteria for diagnosis,132evidence-based practice,xiii, xviiievolutionary,20gene-environment interaction theory,xviihistorical overview,xviii, 3–13biological versus ideological,4evolutionary psychology and,10nature and nurture, modern medicine and,11–13in nineteenth-century psychiatry,4–5in twentieth-century psychiatry,5–7in twenty-first-century psychiatry,7–10“neo-Kraepelian” school,5politics and,11social sciences and,10–11implications of behavioral genetics for,24implications of genetic research for,27–29predisposition to mental illness,142unsolved diagnostic problems,xixPsychoanalysishistory of,5–7institutional structure of,6as ”talking cure,”6theory of,6Psychology, evolutionary,10Psychopathology,xiv–xvconditions for developing,44psychopathology factor,50risk factors for development of,44Psychopathology factor (p factor),28–29, 50Psychosocial environment,vii–viiiPsychosurgery,6Psychotherapyaccess to,8for treatment of personality disorders,136–139PTSD. See Posttraumatic stress disorderRDoC. See Research Domain CriteriaReductionism, biological,xv–xviiclinical implications in psychiatry,130–131description of,130history of,xvi, 9–10theoretical models of,xvi“two cultures” of,xv–xviReductionism, environmental, clinical implications in psychiatry,134–136Replication crisis,26Research Domain Criteria (RDoC),53. See also DSM; Human Connectome Projectdescription of,59–62as ”precision medicine,”62“units of analysis,”60–61Resilience. See also Stressto adversity,37coping mechanisms and,35long-term effects of environmental stressors,36personality and stress,36–37sources of,31–32stress and,34–36Robins, Eli,58Rutter, Michael,xvii, 39, 48Spetrière,5Scarr, S.,11Schizophrenia,xxbiopsychosocial study of,77cannabis and,75environmental risk factors,75–77“expressed emotion” with,76gender and,74gene-environment interactions,77genetic markers and,144genetic risk factors,73–75genome-wide association studies of,74immigration and,76–77polygenic risk score,74schizotypal personality and,73severity of,75–76social factors and,76symptoms of,75Serotonin, regulation of,38–40Siblingspersonality traits of,116sibling-pair method,25–26Simpson, Wallis,102Social anxiety,90in personality disorders,123Social disintegration,123Social integration,123Social sciences, nature-nurture and,10–11Sowell, Thomas,11Spitzer, Robert,57–58Stress. See also Environment; Posttraumatic stress disorder; Resiliencedefinition of,94negative consequences of,34–35personality and resilience,36–37psychological stressors and,37–38resilience and,34–36role of stressors in depression,83–86social stressors,40–41, 86, 142stressors for ADHD,68–69studies of environmental stressors in OCD,92Substance-related and addictive disorders,xxenvironmental risk factors for substance abuse,109–111genes and environment in substance abuse,112genetic predispositions to substance use,107–109“oriental flush,”108overview,107personality traits and,111prevalence of,142sociocultural factors in substance use,111–112Suicide,41, 51Systemic lupus erythematosus,52Temperament,115–117impulsive,138psychotherapy and,138Trauma. See also Posttraumatic stress disorderchildhood,38–40PTSD and,96–99as a risk factor for personality disorders,120definition of,94intergenerational transmission of,98long-term effects of,95severity of,95short-term effects of,95Tremblay, Richard,110Trinucleotide repeats,20Tuberculosis, etiology of,45Twins. See also Adoption studieslongitudinal studies of,50monozygotic,16, 50, 51studies of alcoholism,108studies of BPD,119studies of depression,81, 83studies of generalized anxiety disorder,89–90studies of OCD,92studies of PTSD,95using genetic samples for measurement of heritability,21–23validity of studies of,23Uher, Rudolph,48, 54Vermont Longitudinal Study,76Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development,50Whitehall study,40Wilson, E.O.,10