Skip to main content
Full access
Regular Articles
Published Online: 30 November 2016

Suspected Delirium Predicts the Thoroughness of Catatonia Evaluation

Publication: The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences

Abstract

Although commonly linked to psychiatric disorders, catatonia is frequently identified secondary to neurological and general medical conditions (GMCs). The present study aimed to characterize the diagnostic workup of cases of catatonia in a general hospital setting. The authors performed a retrospective chart review of 54 cases of catatonia, over 3 years. Clinical suspicion of comorbid delirium was the strongest predictor of a more thorough general medical workup. Attribution of catatonia to a psychiatric etiology was associated with significantly less diagnostic workup. Prospective studies should help clarify the relationship between catatonia and delirium and standardize the diagnostic approach to patients presenting with catatonia.
Catatonia is a neuropsychiatric syndrome that is associated with many general medical and psychiatric conditions.13 Catatonia was historically described in persons in depressive and manic states, but throughout the 20th century it became linked with schizophrenia.4 More recent studies clarified catatonia’s link to affective disorders in a majority of cases, and called attention to the fact that between 21% and 46% of cases are secondary to an underlying general medical condition (GMC).2,5,6
Current psychiatric nosology reflects this history. The DSM-5 differentiates between catatonia due to a mental disorder and catatonia due to another GMC, although it still classifies catatonia in the chapter of psychotic disorders.7 The label of unspecified catatonia refers to cases where the cause is unknown (i.e., idiopathic) or the required number of catatonic signs is not met.7
The prevalence of catatonia due to a GMC is not clearly defined. One retrospective review of 95 patients diagnosed with catatonia2 identified the prevalence of catatonia due to GMC, psychotic disorder, or mood disorder to be 21%, 23% and 56%, respectively. A prospective study of older patients in a general hospital found catatonia to be present in 8.9% of those evaluated by the psychiatry consultation team.8 Catatonia has also been described in 3.8% of cases in the intensive care unit (ICU),9 with all cases attributed to a GMC.10 Overall, the distribution of underlying causes of catatonia varies based on care setting (psychiatric hospital, general hospital, ICU) and the degree to which a diagnostic workup was undertaken.11
Many general medical etiologies of catatonia are identified in the literature,1,3,12 and are diagnosable with commonly available tests. A variety of neurologic insults causing catatonia has been reported including stroke, neoplasms, hydrocephalus, hemorrhages, neurodegenerative and autoimmune conditions, as well as posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, all of which can be identified with neuroimaging.13,13,14 The utility of electroencephalography (EEG) in catatonia is widely acknowledged, particularly to exclude seizures and nonconvulsive status epilepticus.15 Even in cases of catatonia attributed to psychiatric conditions, EEGs are abnormal in more than 50% of cases.2,16 Deficiencies of vitamin B121719and folate20 have been linked to catatonia. Hypo- and hyperthyroidism have been reported to cause catatonia, and treatment with thyroid hormone or antithyroid drugs may reverse the catatonic states.21,22 Additionally, catatonia has been linked to other endocrinopathies, infections, drug intoxication or withdrawal states, lithium or tacrolimus intoxication, among other causes.3,2325 Data from case series show that catatonic signs exist in up to 88% of patients with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (aNMDAR) encephalitis, a condition diagnosed through analysis of cerebrospinal fluid.26
Recent studies have shown that catatonia is frequent in patients with delirium,27,28 a condition for which further diagnostic workup may be indicated. Cocaine or stimulant intoxication, alcohol withdrawal, traumatic brain injury and manic states can present with both delirium and catatonic features.29,30 Despite these observations, DSM-5 nosology precludes the diagnosis of catatonia due to GMC if it occurs exclusively in the course of delirium.
Given the lengthy differential diagnosis, clinicians are faced with a difficult task when evaluating a patient with catatonic signs. Expert recommendations for a rational diagnostic approach to catatonia exist,9,14,31,32 and include laboratory studies, neuroimaging, and EEG, and more extensive workup based on clinical suspicion. Some authors recommend lumbar puncture in all cases,33 and others have advocated for an extensive workup to rule out general medical etiologies before attributing the cause of catatonia to a psychiatric disorder.12 The lack of systematic data on the rates of general medical etiologies of catatonia makes generating evidence-based workup recommendations difficult. While studies have reported the range of causes of catatonia, none have systematically applied a standardized diagnostic workup so that the pretest probability of abnormal findings for each test could be known. Currently, there is no accepted standard for ruling out GMCs as the etiology of catatonia, or ruling in a psychiatric etiology.
A methodical diagnostic approach to catatonia is important because effective treatment for catatonia begins with correcting the underlying cause. Treating the catatonic state itself is essential to prevent further complications, including dehydration, malnutrition, exhaustion, injuries, acute renal failure, deep venous thrombosis, pulmonary embolism and pressure ulcers.34 In general, lorazepam and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) are highly effective in treating catatonia regardless of its underlying etiology,35,36 although there is some evidence suggesting that ECT may be less effective or have increased risk of side effects in some neurological conditions.37,38 These risks may be lowered through careful pre-ECT evaluation and optimal ECT technique.39
The aim of this study was to describe the diagnostic evaluations completed in cases of catatonia in one general medical hospital and the clinical factors associated with greater diagnostic evaluations, likelihood of receiving treatment, and response to treatment. Our hypotheses included: 1) Cases of catatonia attributed to a psychiatric disorder receive less diagnostic workup than cases attributed to a GMC; 2) Catatonia due to GMC is commonly associated with suspected delirium; and 3) Improvement with lorazepam occurs in catatonia regardless of the underlying etiology.

Methods

With approval from the Institutional Review Board at the University of Chicago, we performed a retrospective chart review of adult general hospital inpatients at the University of Chicago Medical Center from January 2011 to December 2013. No psychiatric inpatients were included. Cases were identified by searching medical records for the words “catatonia” or “catatonic” in provider notes. Charts were then screened to clarify which cases had been diagnosed with catatonia. Only cases that had documented evidence of catatonia during the hospitalization were included. Demographic and clinical data, including diagnostics and treatment, were extracted from all cases that met inclusion criteria.
To be included in the study, a consensus opinion of all reviewers regarding catatonic signs and etiological factors was required. All reviewers used the same chart review instructions to classify cases. Confirmed cases of catatonia were classified by reviewers into three etiological groups following DSM-5 criteria: catatonia due to GMC, catatonia due to a psychiatric disorder, or unspecified catatonia. Cases meeting criteria for catatonia due to a GMC with suspected co-occurring delirium were included. The treating clinicians may have used DSM-IV, DSM-5, or other criteria for making the clinical diagnosis of catatonia, but only those meeting retrospective DSM-5 criteria, modified as above, were included in the sample.

Statistical Analysis

All analyses were conducted using SAS software, Version 9.3 (SAS Institute, Cary, N.C.). For our primary research question, each diagnostic test was coded as a binary variable, with 1=test ordered and 0=no test ordered. Pearson correlations were used to describe intercorrelations among tests. The number of individual tests was then summed to create a total number of tests ordered, ranging from a possible 0 to 17. The continuous summary variable was normally distributed (median=8.00, mean=7.59, SD=3.24, range=3–14, skewness=0.12). A series of regression analyses examined factors that predicted the total number of tests ordered, including age, gender (0=male, 1=female), binary variables for first episode of catatonia, past history of other psychiatric illness, suspected delirium, and dopamine D2 receptor antagonist exposure, as well as the total number of catatonic symptoms (as a continuous measure). To examine factors associated with treatment, the use of lorazepam was coded as a 0=no and 1=yes, and logistic regression analysis was used to predict the likelihood of treatment, using the same factors as above. For examination of group differences, such as differences in treatment response rates across groups, results from simple chi-square tests for binary data and t tests for continuous measures are reported. Given the large number of individual diagnostic tests, any post hoc comparisons of group differences in diagnostic tests were conducted using a conservative p<0.01 threshold.

Results

Sample

A total of 170 charts were identified and reviewed, and 54 cases were diagnosed as catatonia and included in our analysis. They included 36 female adults and 18 male adults aged 18–80 (median age=53.50 years). Most cases (N=43, 79.63%) were African American. All cases represent unique patients except one patient with schizophrenia with three distinct presentations, a different patient with schizophrenia who presented twice, and one patient with hyponatremia who presented twice.

Descriptive Information

Table 1 shows the clinical features of the sample. Most cases presented with a first-known episode of catatonia. Approximately 40% of the sample had a past history of other psychiatric illness and/or a family history of psychiatric illness. Just over half of cases had suspected delirium. Catatonia was preceded by dopamine D2 receptor antagonist exposure in nearly 60% of cases. In this sample, dopamine D2 receptor antagonists to which patients were exposed included (alone or in combination) haloperidol, fluphenazine, risperidone, olanzapine, ziprasidone, metoclopramide, quetiapine, and clozapine. The average number of DSM-5 clinical symptoms in this sample was 4.39 (SD=1.50; range=3–9).
TABLE 1. Clinical Cohort Features and Catatonia Symptoms
VariableCases
Cohort features  
 MeanSD
 Age (years)49.617.71
 N%
 Female3666.67
 Past psychiatric history3142.59
 Family psychiatric historya18a41.86a
 Suspected delirium2953.70
 First known episode of catatonia4990.74
 Dopamine D2 receptor antagonist exposure3259.26
DSM-5 catatonic signs documented  
 Mutism4787.04
 Negativism4175.93
 Stupor3870.37
 Agitation3768.52
 Posturing2240.74
 Stereotypy1527.78
 Echolalia712.96
 Waxy flexibility611.11
 Echopraxia611.11
 Grimacing611.11
 Catalepsy611.11
 Mannerism611.11
a
Family history of psychiatric illness was available from 43 of the 54 cases; percentage is based on the number of cases with nonmissing data.

Diagnostic Workup and Results

Table 2 describes the diagnostic tests obtained for this sample. The average number of tests obtained was 7.59 (SD=3.24) and ranged from 3 to 14. No case received all 17 tests. The use of urine drug screens was inversely related to the use of other medical tests, and these negative correlations were significant for tests of liver function, thyrotropin, B12, folate, iron levels, and EEG. In general, intercorrelations between the other 16 tests were positive and significant. Exceptions were CBC, creatine kinase (which was only correlated with liver function), and the four tests that were ordered among fewer than 10 cases (paraneoplastic panel, lithium level, aNMDAR antibodies, and tacrolimus level).
TABLE 2. Frequencies and Pearson Correlations of Diagnostic Testsa
Diagnostic MeasureN%BMPbCBCNeuroLFTsNH4UrineCKTSHEEGB12FolateIronCSFPNPLiaNM
BMP54100.00                
CBC5398.15               
Neuro4074.070.23              
LFTs3972.220.220.48             
NH43259.260.170.460.58            
Urine3055.56–0.12–0.19–0.31–0.21           
CK2851.850.140.020.310.26–0.27c          
TSH2851.850.140.440.560.41–0.560.18         
EEG2444.440.120.530.550.51–0.330.27c0.49        
B122342.590.120.420.530.41–0.590.160.830.51       
Folate1629.630.090.290.400.21–0.320.140.630.400.75      
Iron1324.070.080.140.350.47–0.370.200.370.450.480.39     
CSF1018.520.070.280.300.20–0.250.170.27c0.440.360.320.29    
PNP712.960.050.220.240.10–0.100.040.040.430.110.11–0.080.38   
Li59.26–0.43–0.100.060.00–0.100.180.05–0.030.110.070.120.01–0.12  
aNM59.260.040.190.200.13–0.230.050.180.360.240.21–0.030.670.64–0.10 
Tac35.560.030.140.150.20–0.110.070.240.110.280.200.240.09–0.09–0.08–0.08
a
aNM: anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibodies; BMP: basic metabolic panel; CBC: complete blood count; CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; CK: creatine kinase; EEG: electroencephalography; Li: lithium level; LFTs: liver function tests; Neuro: neuroimaging; NH4: ammonia; PNP: paraneoplastic panel; TSH: thyroid stimulating hormone.
b
Correlations were not calculated because all subjects received the BMP test.
c
Due to rounding, one correlation of 0.27 is significant while the others are not; all other correlations in bold of absolute magnitude greater than or equal to 0.27 are significant; p<0.05=absolute magnitude of correlations between 0.27 and 0.33; p<0.01=absolute magnitude of correlations between 0.34 and 0.42; p<0.001=absolute magnitude of correlations greater than 0.43.
In univariate models, older age (b=0.08, SE=0.02, t52=3.53, p<0.001), first episode of catatonia (b=3.52, SE=1.45, t52=2.42, p=0.019), and suspected delirium (b=5.35, SE=0.49, t52=10.81, p<0.001) were all associated with a greater number of tests. There was no association between total number of tests with gender (b=−0.44, SE=0.94, t52=–0.47, p=0.639), past history of psychiatric illness (b=−1.09, SE=0.89, t52=–1.23, p=0.225), dopamine D2 receptor antagonist exposure (b=0.85, SE=0.90, t52=0.94, p=0.350), or total number of catatonia symptoms (b=−0.11, SE=0.30, t52=–0.38, p=0.707). In a multiple regression, only suspected delirium remained significant (b=5.14, SE=0.73, t46=7.08, p<0.001). The average number of tests obtained for cases with suspected delirium (N=29, mean=10.07, SD=1.91) was more than double the number of tests ordered for cases without suspected delirium (N=25, mean=4.72, SD=1.70). In addition, only two cases without suspected delirium received more than seven tests. In contrast, all but one case with suspected delirium received eight or more tests.
Post hoc chi-square statistics for individual tests (excluding BMP and CBC) revealed significantly higher rates of tests (p<0.010) among cases with suspected delirium for all tests except paraneoplastic panel (p=0.069), lithium level (p=0.767), aNMDAR antibodies (p=0.029), and tacrolimus level (p=0.098). The only test more likely to be obtained in cases without suspected delirium was urine drug screening (34% versus 80%, p<0.001).
Table 3 characterizes the abnormal results across all cases of catatonia. Table 4 lists the abnormalities found on EEG and imaging. Overall, test results led to a diagnosis of GMC etiology for 29 cases. Twenty cases were attributed to a psychiatric condition, and five cases could not be assigned either a GMC or a psychiatric etiology. Cases assigned a psychiatric etiology received significantly fewer diagnostic tests (mean=5.00, SD=2.20) compared with cases with a GMC etiology (mean=9.07, SD=2.67, t51=3.40, p=0.001) and to cases with unknown etiology (mean=9.40, SD=3.51, t51=5.41, p<0.001). However, cases with a psychiatric etiology were also significantly less likely to have suspected delirium (10.00% psychiatric; 79.31% GMC; 80.00% unknown etiology; χ2=24.40, df=2, p<0.001).
TABLE 3. Abnormal Resultsa
Diagnostic AbnormalityAbnormal Tests/Total Obtained (%)Abnormality Contributed to Diagnosis of GMC (%)
EEG abnormal16/24 (67%)2/16 (13%)
Tacrolimus level2/3 (67%)1/2 (50%)
Neuroimaging abnormal24/40 (60%)1/24 (4%)
Lithium level3/5 (60%)3/3 (100%)
CSF abnormal5/10 (50%)3/5 (60%)
Creatinine kinase elevated13/28 (46%)1/13 (8%)
Low serum iron6/13 (46%)0/6 (0%)
Transaminases elevated15/39 (38%)0/15 (0%)
Thyrotropin abnormal9/28 (32%)0/9 (0%)
Leukocytosis >1116/53 (30%)7/16 (44%)
BUN elevated14/54 (26%)2/14 (14%)
aNMDAR antibodies positive1/5 (20%)1/1 (100%)
Ammonia elevated >705/32 (15%)1/5 (20%)
Paraneoplastic panel positive1/7 (14%)1/1 (100%)
Hyponatremia <1306/53 (11%)4/6 (67%)
Urine drug screen positive3/30 (10%)3/3 (100%)
Low folate0/16 (0%)0/0 (0%)
Low Vitamin B120/23 (0%)0/0 (0%)
a
aNMDAR: anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor; BUN: blood urea nitrogen; CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; EEG: electroencephalography; GMC: general medical condition.
TABLE 4. EEG and Neuroimaging Findings in Catatoniaa
Attributed EtiologyEEG (N)Neuroimaging (N)
GMCNormal EEG (N=7)Normal imaging (N=8)
 Generalized slowing (N=7)Small vessel disease (N=12)
 Generalized slowing plus epileptiform activity (N=3)Small vessel disease plus frontal atrophy (N=1)
 Seizures (N=1)Focal encephalomalacia (N=2)
  Old multiple sclerosis lesions (N=1)
  Hydrocephalus (N=1)
  Pontine white matter hyperintensity (N=1)
PsychiatricNormal EEG (N=1)Normal imaging (N=7)
Generalized slowing (N=1)Small vessel disease (N=1)
  Old infarcts with hemosiderin (N=1)
UnspecifiedGeneralized slowing (N=3)Normal imaging (N=1)
 Generalized slowing andSmall vessel disease (N=2)
 epileptiform activity (N=1)Small vessel disease and atrophy (N=1)
  Stroke (N=1)
a
EEG: electroencephalography; GMC: general medical condition.
Table 5 lists the general medical and psychiatric etiologies of catatonia. Thirty-two cases were preceded by administration of dopamine D2 receptor antagonist exposure, including three that received metoclopramide. In only one case was the dopamine D2 receptor antagonist regarded as the sole etiology, a case of haloperidol-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS).
TABLE 5. Causes of Catatoniaa
GMCs (N)Psychiatric (N)
Infection or sepsis (N=5)Schizophrenia (N=9)
Hyponatremia (N=4)Bipolar disorder (N=5)
Lithium toxicity (N=3)Unspecified psychosis (N=3)
Epilepsy (N=2)Major depression (N=2)
Uremic encephalopathy (N=2)Schizoaffective disorder (N=1)
Cocaine-induced (N=2) 
Alcohol withdrawal (N=1) 
aNMDAR encephalitis (N=1)
Brain metastases (N=1)
Diabetic ketoacidosis (N=1) 
GAD65 antibodies+seizures (N=1) 
Hyperammonemia (N=1) 
MDMA-induced (N=1) 
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (N=1) 
Normal pressure hydrocephalus (N=1)
Steroid-induced (N=1) 
Tacrolimus-induced (N=1) 
a
aNMDAR: anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor; GAD: Glutamate decarboxylase; GMCs: general medical conditions; MDMA: 3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine.

Treatment Effects

There were no cases where ECT was recommended or used as a treatment. Lorazepam was administered during the catatonic episode in 29 (53.70%) cases. One additional case received and responded to clonazepam but was not included in the analyses. There were no differences in rates of administration of lorazepam between the GMC (17/28; 60.71%), psychiatric (10/20; 50.00%), and unknown etiology (2/5; 40.00%) groups (χ2=1.02, df=2, p=0.600) or between cases of suspected delirium (17/29; 58.62%) or not (12/24; 50.00%) (χ2=0.39, df=1, p=0.530). Additional multiple logistic regression revealed that only the total number of catatonic symptoms was associated with likelihood of receiving lorazepam (odds ratio=1.84; 95% CI: 1.10—3.09, p=0.021). Age, gender, first episode of catatonia, history of other psychiatric illness, dopamine D2 receptor antagonist exposure, and suspected delirium were not associated with likelihood of receiving lorazepam (all p values >0.100).
Of the 29 cases that received lorazepam, the majority (24; 82.76%) responded to treatment (Figure 1). There was no difference in treatment response between cases with a GMC etiology (14/17; 82.35%) and cases with a psychiatric etiology (10/10; 100.00%; χ2=1.99, df=1, p=0.159); however, neither of the cases with unknown etiology (0/2) responded to treatment (χ2=11.69, df=2, p=0.003). Cases with suspected delirium were less likely to respond to lorazepam (12/17; 70.59%) than cases without suspected delirium (12/12; 100.00%; χ2=4.26, df=1, p=0.039).
FIGURE 1. Response to Lorazepama
a GMC: general medical condition; Psy: psychiatric etiology; Del: suspected delirium.

Discussion

The results from this study demonstrate an association between the clinical suspicion of delirium and an increased search for general medical conditions in catatonia.
Cases of catatonia attributed to psychiatric etiologies had delirium suspected rarely, and received significantly less diagnostic workup. The term delirium implies a general medical etiology, whereas catatonia may not carry that association for many clinicians. This finding raises the question about whether the determination of a psychiatric etiology for catatonia was made in the absence of a complete diagnostic workup excluding other general medical causes, or whether a more limited diagnostic workup was clinically appropriate given the history and examination. Our retrospective design does not allow us to clarify if a more thorough workup would have uncovered GMC etiologies in the cases of catatonia attributed to psychiatric conditions. There may be additional factors not captured by our study design, such as additional general medical comorbidities, which could have influenced the clinical decision to obtain more or less workup. Urine drug screen was the only test inversely related to suspicion of delirium, which was likely related to the fact that in our hospital patients require a urine drug screen prior to psychiatric hospitalization.
The tests that were more useful in identifying a GMC in our sample were complete blood count (leukocytosis), basic metabolic panel (hyponatremia, uremia), CSF analysis, urine drug screening, serum lithium level, and EEG. The completion of these six tests detected the underlying cause in 24 out of 29 cases of cases with catatonia due to GMC (83%). Many of the abnormalities seen may be a result of the catatonic state rather than the etiology. When neuroimaging and EEG were done, abnormal results were frequently identified, consistent with previous studies on catatonia.2,16,40 Most of the imaging and EEG abnormalities were considered nonspecific. For instance, small vessel disease (SVD) was found in 17 of 40 cases with imaging, and was significantly associated with age (mean age with SVD 65.2 years versus 45.9 years without SVD, p<0.001), but SVD was not implicated as the cause of catatonia in any cases. Overall, nearly all of the GMC etiologies in our series are conditions amenable to or fully reversible with treatment (Table 5). The high rates of detecting a GMC in catatonia seen in our series highlight the need for a thorough evaluation in all catatonic patients to exclude a general medical etiology, particularly in the general hospital.
In just over half of the cases in our sample, clinical teams raised suspicion for delirium. Prior studies of catatonia have excluded patients with delirium,2 which is consistent with DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. However, other studies show that delirium and catatonia can co-occur.2730 Thus, we did not exclude delirium from our sample. We propose that this exclusion criterion is difficult to operationalize in clinical practice, particularly in catatonia secondary to GMCs. Our data support the idea that delirium comorbid with catatonia may drive clinical reasoning, and thus this relationship warrants further study.
The majority of cases (82%) that documented the effects of lorazepam demonstrated at least some benefit. It is noteworthy that lorazepam was useful in 100% of cases without suspected delirium. Even in suspected delirium, a response rate of 71% to lorazepam indicates a treatment worthy of consideration. Moreover, treatment with lorazepam was related to the total number of catatonic signs present, which is a marker of possible severity, and not related to the suspicion of delirium. Since lorazepam may worsen delirium, these data support the idea that catatonia may often supersede delirium in the consideration of treatment options. Our retrospective data cannot adequately test this hypothesis. A recent case series study found that ECT was an effective treatment for 5 patients with persistent delirium in the ICU, at least one of whom was catatonic.41 However, our study did not use a standardized method to detect or rule out delirium and cases with documented suspected delirium may not have had that diagnosis.
The main limitation of our study is its retrospective design which 1) prevented the use of validated instruments for diagnosing catatonia or delirium; 2) creates a bias whereby clinicians may have documented differently in cases of catatonia or where the cases received the workup that was felt necessary by the clinical team based on the history and exam; and 3) means that unaccounted for differences between the groups may have influenced the results. Notwithstanding these limitations, our sample represents the clinical decision making related to presentations of catatonia in one general hospital setting.

Conclusions

Our findings reflect the variation in diagnostic evaluation of catatonia that has been previously described, and indicate that suspicion of comorbid delirium may drive a significant portion of this variation. Future studies are needed to prospectively workup all cases of catatonia in a standardized manner, regardless of suspected etiology, to help determine the rates of general medical etiologies of catatonia. Such data can help guide clinicians to adequately exclude general medical causes, or identify which clinical factors should trigger additional workup, before making a determination of a psychiatric etiology.
The comorbidity between catatonia, particularly catatonia due to a GMC, and delirium is an important but inadequately understood clinical phenomena. The DSM-5 criteria for catatonia might be insufficient regarding diagnosis in cases of co-occurring delirium and catatonia. Further studies are needed to investigate the safety and utility of treatments for catatonia, such as benzodiazepines and ECT, in these patients.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Paige Marnell and Anya Piotrowski for their contributions to the research.

References

1.
Carroll BT, Anfinson TJ, Kennedy JC, et al: Catatonic disorder due to general medical conditions. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1994; 6:122–133
2.
Smith JH, Smith VD, Philbrick KL, et al: Catatonic disorder due to a general medical or psychiatric condition. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2012; 24:198–207
3.
Ahuja N: Organic catatonia: a review. Indian J Psychiatry 2000; 42:327–346
4.
Fink M, Shorter E, Taylor MA: Catatonia is not schizophrenia: Kraepelin’s error and the need to recognize catatonia as an independent syndrome in medical nomenclature. Schizophr Bull 2010; 36:314–320
5.
Altshuler LL, Cummings JL, Mills MJ: Mutism: review, differential diagnosis, and report of 22 cases. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:1409–1414
6.
Gelenberg AJ: The catatonic syndrome. Lancet 1976; 1:1339–1341
7.
American Psychiatric Association: Schizophrenia spectrum and other psychotic disorders, in DSM 5. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2013, pp 87–122
8.
Jaimes-Albornoz W, Serra-Mestres J: Prevalence and clinical correlations of catatonia in older adults referred to a liaison psychiatry service in a general hospital. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2013; 35:512–516
9.
Saddawi-Konefka D, Berg SM, Nejad SH, et al: Catatonia in the ICU: an important and underdiagnosed cause of altered mental status. a case series and review of the literature*. Crit Care Med 2014; 42:e234–e241
10.
Rizos DV, Peritogiannis V, Gkogkos C: Catatonia in the intensive care unit. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2011; 33:e1–e2
11.
Penland HR, Weder N, Tampi RR: The catatonic dilemma expanded. Ann Gen Psychiatry 2006; 5:14
12.
Jaimes-Albornoz W, Serra-Mestres J: Catatonia in the emergency department. Emerg Med J 2012; 29:863–867
13.
Kitabayashi Y, Hamamoto Y, Hirosawa R, et al: Postpartum catatonia associated with atypical posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2007; 19:91–92
14.
Carroll BT: Catatonia on the consultation-liaison service. Psychosomatics 1992; 33:310–315
15.
Monti G, Pugnaghi M, Ariatti A, et al: Non-convulsive status epilepticus of frontal origin as the first manifestation of Hashimoto’s encephalopathy. Epileptic Disord 2011; 13:253–258
16.
Carroll BT, Boutros NN: Clinical electroencephalograms in patients with catatonic disorders. Clin Electroencephalogr 1995; 26:60–64
17.
Catalano G, Catalano MC, Rosenberg EI, et al: Catatonia: another neuropsychiatric presentation of vitamin B12 deficiency? Psychosomatics 1998; 39:456–460
18.
Bram D, Bubrovszky M, Durand J-P, et al: Pernicious anemia presenting as catatonia: correlating vitamin B12 levels and catatonic symptoms. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2015; 37:273.e5–273.e7
19.
Berry N, Sagar R, Tripathi BM: Catatonia and other psychiatric symptoms with vitamin B12 deficiency. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2003; 108:156–159
20.
Ho A, Michelson D, Aaen G, et al: Cerebral folate deficiency presenting as adolescent catatonic schizophrenia: a case report. J Child Neurol 2010; 25:898–900
21.
Saito T, Saito R, Suwa H, et al: Differences in the treatment response to antithyroid drugs versus electroconvulsive therapy in a case of recurrent catatonia due to Graves’ disease. Case Rep Psychiatry 2012; 2012:868490
22.
Nishihara K, Kinoshita H, Kurotaki N, et al: Could subclinical hypothyroidism cause periodic catatonia with delusional misidentification syndrome? Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2010; 64:338
23.
Gingrich JA, Rudnick-Levin F, Almeida C, et al: Cocaine and catatonia. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155:1629
24.
Desarkar P, Das A, Das B, et al: Lithium toxicity presenting as catatonia in an adolescent girl. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2007; 27:410–412
25.
Chopra A, Das P, Rai A, et al: Catatonia as a manifestation of tacrolimus-induced neurotoxicity in organ transplant patients: a case series. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2012; 34:209.e9–209.e11
26.
Dalmau J, Gleichman AJ, Hughes EG, et al: Anti-NMDA-receptor encephalitis: case series and analysis of the effects of antibodies. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7:1091–1098
27.
Grover S, Ghosh A, Ghormode D: Do patients of delirium have catatonic features? An exploratory study. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2014; 68:644–651
28.
Oldham MA, Lee HB: Catatonia vis-à-vis delirium: the significance of recognizing catatonia in altered mental status. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2015; 37:554–559
29.
Fink M: Delirious mania. Bipolar Disord 1999; 1:54–60
30.
Samuel E, Williams RB, Ferrell RB: Excited delirium: consideration of selected medical and psychiatric issues. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2009; 5:61–66
31.
Tuerlings JHAM, van Waarde JA, Verwey B: A retrospective study of 34 catatonic patients: analysis of clinical care and treatment. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2010; 32:631–635
32.
Rosebush PI, Mazurek MF: Catatonia and its treatment. Schizophr Bull 2010; 36:239–242
33.
Boronow JJ: The Psychotic Disorders Unit, in Textbook of Hospital Psychiatry, 1st ed. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2009
34.
Swartz C, Galang RL: Adverse outcome with delay in identification of catatonia in elderly patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001; 9:78–80
35.
Fricchione GL, Cassem NH, Hooberman D, et al: Intravenous lorazepam in neuroleptic-induced catatonia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1983; 3:338–342
36.
Hawkins JM, Archer KJ, Strakowski SM, et al: Somatic treatment of catatonia. Int J Psychiatry Med 1995; 25:345–369
37.
Rasmussen KG, Hart DA, Lineberry TW: ECT in patients with psychopathology related to acute neurologic illness. Psychosomatics 2008; 49:67–72
38.
Quinn DK, Abbott CC: Catatonia after cerebral hypoxia: do the usual treatments apply? Psychosomatics 2014; 55:525–535
39.
Krystal AD, Coffey CE: Neuropsychiatric considerations in the use of electroconvulsive therapy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997; 9:283–292
40.
Northoff G: Brain imaging in catatonia: current findings and a pathophysiologic model. CNS Spectr 2000; 5:34–46
41.
Nielsen RM, Olsen KS, Lauritsen AO, et al: Electroconvulsive therapy as a treatment for protracted refractory delirium in the intensive care unit--five cases and a review. J Crit Care 2014; 29:881.e1–881.e6

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
Go to The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences
Pages: 148 - 154
PubMed: 27899050

History

Received: 22 September 2015
Revision received: 14 December 2015
Revision received: 31 May 2016
Accepted: 28 August 2016
Published online: 30 November 2016
Published in print: Spring 2017

Keywords

  1. Mental Status Assessment
  2. Diagnosis and Classification in Neuropsychiatry
  3. Consultation/Liaison Neuropsychiatry

Authors

Details

Joan Roig Llesuy, M.D.
From the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (JRL, KCJ, JJC); and the Menninger Clinic, Houston, TX (MJC).
M. Justin Coffey, M.D.
From the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (JRL, KCJ, JJC); and the Menninger Clinic, Houston, TX (MJC).
Kristen C. Jacobson, Ph.D.
From the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (JRL, KCJ, JJC); and the Menninger Clinic, Houston, TX (MJC).
Joseph J. Cooper, M.D.
From the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (JRL, KCJ, JJC); and the Menninger Clinic, Houston, TX (MJC).

Notes

Previously presented in part as a poster at the 26th Annual Meeting of the American Neuropsychiatric Association, Lake Buena Vista, Fla., March 25–28, 2015. Presenters: Roig Llesuy J, Marnell P, Piotrowski A, Cooper JJ. Poster Title: “Catatonia in the General Hospital; Underlying Causes and Disparity in Workup.”
Send correspondence to Dr. Cooper; e-mail: [email protected]

Funding Information

Dr. Coffey receives royalties from UpToDate. All other authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests.

Metrics & Citations

Metrics

Citations

Export Citations

If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download.

For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu.

Format
Citation style
Style
Copy to clipboard

View Options

View options

PDF/EPUB

View PDF/EPUB

Get Access

Login options

Already a subscriber? Access your subscription through your login credentials or your institution for full access to this article.

Personal login Institutional Login Open Athens login
Purchase Options

Purchase this article to access the full text.

PPV Articles - Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences

PPV Articles - Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences

Not a subscriber?

Subscribe Now / Learn More

PsychiatryOnline subscription options offer access to the DSM-5-TR® library, books, journals, CME, and patient resources. This all-in-one virtual library provides psychiatrists and mental health professionals with key resources for diagnosis, treatment, research, and professional development.

Need more help? PsychiatryOnline Customer Service may be reached by emailing [email protected] or by calling 800-368-5777 (in the U.S.) or 703-907-7322 (outside the U.S.).

Media

Figures

Other

Tables

Share

Share

Share article link

Share