Adult Health Outcomes of Childhood Bullying Victimization: Evidence From a Five-Decade Longitudinal British Birth Cohort
Abstract
Objective
Method
Results
Conclusions
Method
Participants
Assessment of Bullying
Childhood Confounders
Adult Outcomes
Attrition
Statistical Analyses
Results
Childhood Bullying Victimization
Bullied at Ages 7 and 11 Years | Group Difference | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Childhood characteristic | Never (N=4,557) | Occasionally (N=2,128) | Frequently (N=1,086) | |||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | χ2 (df=3) | p | |
Parents’ social class | 49.17 | <0.001 | ||||||
Professional/managerial | 1,120 | 21.7 | 418 | 16.8 | 174 | 14.3 | ||
Skilled nonmanual | 480 | 9.8 | 240 | 10.3 | 91 | 7.6 | ||
Skilled manual | 1,906 | 43.8 | 905 | 43.6 | 517 | 47.8 | ||
Semiskilled/unskilled manual | 1,023 | 24.7 | 559 | 29.3 | 304 | 30.2 | ||
Number of childhood adversities | 41.05 | <0.001 | ||||||
0 | 1,901 | 47.3 | 777 | 41.8 | 364 | 39.0 | ||
1 | 988 | 24.9 | 453 | 25.0 | 235 | 25.8 | ||
2 or more | 1,071 | 27.8 | 568 | 33.2 | 324 | 35.2 | ||
Placement in public or substitute care | 99 | 2.4 | 65 | 3.4 | 40 | 4.1 | 7.91 | 0.048 |
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | F | p | |
Low parental involvement | 1.0 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 1.5 | 1.4 | 1.6 | 33.16 | <0.001 |
Childhood IQb | 44.7 | 15.0 | 41.9 | 15.5 | 40.2 | 15.4 | 44.08 | <0.001 |
Internalizing problems | 1.9 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 0.9 | 2.2 | 0.9 | 58.79 | <0.001 |
Externalizing problems | 1.9 | 0.9 | 2.0 | 0.9 | 2.1 | 1.0 | 18.96 | <0.001 |
Childhood Bullying Victimization and Adult Health Outcomes
Bullied at Ages 7 and 11 | Placement in Public or Substitute Care (N=204) | Childhood Adversity | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Occasionally (N=2,128) | Frequently (N=1,086) | 1 Adversity (N=1,676) | ≥2 Adversities (N=1,963) | |||||||
Adult Health Outcomes | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Odds Ratio | (95% CI) |
Psychological distress at age 23b | 1.51 | 1.37–1.68 | 1.82 | 1.60–2.08 | 1.41 | 1.07–1.85 | 1.30 | 1.15–1.47 | 2.14 | 1.91–2.40 |
Psychological distress at age 50 | 1.39 | 1.26–1.54 | 1.49 | 1.30–1.70 | 1.59 | 1.17–2.15 | 1.33 | 1.19–1.50 | 2.45 | 2.18–2.74 |
Psychiatric outcomes at age 45 | ||||||||||
Depression or anxiety disorders | 1.25 | 1.01–1.55 | 1.75 | 1.37–2.24 | 1.48 | 0.91–2.42 | 1.32 | 0.99–1.76 | 3.60 | 2.87–4.53 |
Depression | 1.71 | 1.19–2.47 | 1.95 | 1.27–2.99 | 2.14 | 1.03–4.45 | 1.18 | 0.70–1.98 | 3.72 | 2.48–5.58 |
Any anxiety disorders | 1.14 | 0.89–1.47 | 1.65 | 1.25–2.18 | 1.34 | 0.76–2.36 | 1.32 | 0.95–1.84 | 3.48 | 2.69–4.51 |
Suicidality | 1.45 | 0.99–2.12 | 2.21 | 1.47–3.31 | 3.25 | 1.82–5.81 | 1.74 | 1.05–2.89 | 4.02 | 2.65–6.10 |
Alcohol dependence | 1.00 | 0.67–1.48 | 1.13 | 0.71–1.81 | 1.40 | 0.55–3.58 | 1.37 | 0.84–2.23 | 2.80 | 1.88–4.17 |
General health at age 23 (z score) | 1.33 | 1.19–1.48 | 1.47 | 1.28–1.69 | 1.59 | 1.15–2.18 | 1.16 | 1.02–1.31 | 1.29 | 1.15–1.46 |
General health at age 50 (z score) | 1.33 | 1.20–1.47 | 1.63 | 1.43–1.85 | 1.94 | 1.43–2.62 | 1.24 | 1.10–1.39 | 1.57 | 1.40–1.75 |
Cognitive functioning at age 50c | 0.81 | 0.73–0.90 | 0.70 | 0.61–0.90 | 0.68 | 0.53–0.88 | 1.05 | 0.94–1.18 | 0.99 | 0.89–1.11 |
Controlling For All Childhood Confoundersb | All Childhood Confounders Plus Placement in Public or Substitute Care and Childhood Adversityb | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mental Health Outcomes | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Odds Ratio | 95% CI |
Psychological distress at age 23 | ||||
Bullied occasionally | 1.38 | 1.24–1.53 | 1.38 | 1.23–1.55 |
Bullied frequently | 1.57 | 1.37–1.80 | 1.51 | 1.30–1.75 |
Psychological distress at age 50 | ||||
Bullied occasionally | 1.33 | 1.20–1.47 | 1.29 | 1.15–1.44 |
Bullied frequently | 1.37 | 1.19–1.56 | 1.28 | 1.11–1.48 |
Depression or anxiety disorders at age 45 | ||||
Bullied occasionally | 1.14 | 0.91–1.42 | 1.10 | 0.88–1.38 |
Bullied frequently | 1.50 | 1.16–1.93 | 1.40 | 1.08–1.80 |
Depression at age 45 | ||||
Bullied occasionally | 1.56 | 1.08–2.24 | 1.52 | 1.05–2.19 |
Bullied frequently | 1.65 | 1.07–2.54 | 1.54 | 1.00–2.39 |
Any anxiety disorders at age 45 | ||||
Bullied occasionally | 1.05 | 0.81–1.35 | 1.01 | 0.78–1.31 |
Bullied frequently | 1.42 | 1.06–1.89 | 1.34 | 1.01–1.80 |
Suicidality at age 45 | ||||
Bullied occasionally | 1.23 | 0.83–1.81 | 1.19 | 0.81–1.77 |
Bullied frequently | 1.66 | 1.09–2.52 | 1.57 | 1.02–2.39 |
Childhood Bullying Victimization and Adult Socioeconomic Outcomes, Relationships, and Well-Being
Bullied at Ages 7 and 11 Yearsa | Estimates of Associations | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Midlife Outcomes | Never (N=4,557) | Occasionally (N=2,128) | Frequently (N=1,086) | Occasionally Bullied | Frequently Bullied | |||||
N | % | N | % | N | % | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | |
Socioeconomic Status at Age 50 | ||||||||||
Highest qualification | 1.00 | 0.90–1.12 | 0.81 | 0.71–0.93 | ||||||
No academic qualification | 658 | 16.8 | 376 | 20.6 | 272 | 28.7 | ||||
O-A level | 2,267 | 51.3 | 1,071 | 51.9 | 510 | 46.7 | ||||
Diploma/teaching/nursing | 656 | 13.5 | 275 | 11.7 | 130 | 10.8 | ||||
Higher degree | 976 | 18.4 | 406 | 15.8 | 174 | 13.8 | ||||
Unemploymentb | ||||||||||
Men | 61 | 3.1 | 34 | 3.5 | 26 | 5.7 | 0.98 | 0.61–1.57 | 0.62c | 0.37–1.03 |
Women | 37 | 1.9 | 16 | 2.3 | 8 | 1.6 | 0.94 | 0.51–1.73 | 1.48 | 0.59–3.74 |
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | beta | 95% CI | beta | 95% CI | |
Net pay (£ per week)b | ||||||||||
Men | 333.9 | 377.0 | 317.4 | 340.4 | 281.9 | 336.0 | –1.13 | –27.1 to 24.9 | –27.2c | –59.3 to 4.94 |
Women | 203.1 | 217.4 | 195.7 | 202.7 | 172.2 | 167.5 | 4.88 | –10.2 to 19.9 | –10.3 | –27.5 to 6.91 |
N | % | N | % | N | % | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | |
Social Relationships at Age 50 | ||||||||||
Living with a partner | 3,718 | 81.4 | 1,679 | 78.6 | 830 | 75.5 | 0.88c | 0.76–1.01 | 0.76 | 0.64–0.90 |
Met friends in last 2 weeks | 0.92 | 0.83–1.02 | 0.89c | 0.78–1.01 | ||||||
Not at all | 758 | 16.7 | 395 | 19.0 | 204 | 18.8 | ||||
Once or twice | 2,098 | 45.8 | 983 | 45.0 | 511 | 47.2 | ||||
More than three times | 1,701 | 37.5 | 750 | 35.9 | 371 | 34.0 | ||||
Social support when sick in bed | 0.87 | 0.76–0.99 | 0.74 | 0.62–0.87 | ||||||
Not at all | 78 | 1.7 | 36 | 1.7 | 25 | 2.3 | ||||
A little | 311 | 6.8 | 149 | 7.2 | 95 | 9.1 | ||||
Somewhat | 537 | 22.0 | 290 | 13.6 | 157 | 13.9 | ||||
A great deal | 3,628 | 80.5 | 1,652 | 77.5 | 808 | 74.6 | ||||
Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Mean | SD | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | Odds Ratio | 95% CI | |
Quality of Life at Age 50d | ||||||||||
Quality of life | 26.5 | 5.6 | 25.6 | 5.8 | 25.3 | 6.0 | 0.80 | 0.72–0.89 | 0.73 | 0.64–0.84 |
Life satisfaction, so far | 7.39 | 1.77 | 7.23 | 1.91 | 7.03 | 1.98 | 0.91c | 0.82–1.01 | 0.77 | 0.68–0.88 |
Expected life satisfaction, 10 years later | 7.74 | 1.74 | 7.64 | 1.86 | 7.45 | 2.00 | 0.98 | 0.88–1.08 | 0.86 | 0.75–0.99 |
Discussion
Conclusions and Implications
Acknowledgments
Footnote
Supplementary Material
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