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Group attachments and antagonisms are innate in and constitutive of human beings, even if in contemporary societies we are often encouraged to attach primary value to the individual alone. Among these group attachments and antagonisms are those of family and clan; of nation, ethnicity, and race; of religious membership; of status and class affiliation; and of ideological belief. All of these forms of group affiliation, as the sociologist Georg Simmel (1955) once called them, are capable of evoking emotions and actions of great self-sacrifice and also of extreme hostility and aggression among the individuals bound by them, directed toward those who lie outside the boundaries of the group, especially if they are perceived as threats to its well-being.
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