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Published Online: 11 February 2020

Victimization and Perpetration of Violence Involving Persons With Mood and Other Psychiatric Disorders and Their Relatives

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Abstract

Objective:

This study aimed to examine the rate at which persons with psychiatric disorders were victims of violence by reference relatives and the extent to which victimization and perpetration co-occurred in this population.

Methods:

A total of 523 adults with a psychiatric disorder completed an online survey. Chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests were computed.

Results:

Since first diagnosis, 25% and 26% of respondents reported having been a victim of violence by reference relatives and having committed violence toward reference relatives, respectively. Thirteen percent of respondents reported having been a victim of violence by reference relatives, and 12% reported having committed violence toward reference relatives in the past 6 months. Victimization and perpetration often co-occurred.

Conclusions:

The risk of victimization and perpetration of family violence among persons with psychiatric disorders should be acknowledged. Assessing for risk of perpetrating family violence and intervening in such cases should entail assessing for and/or addressing victimization, and vice versa.

HIGHLIGHTS

Approximately 25% of respondents with psychiatric disorders reported having been a victim of violence by the relative with whom they spend the most time or having committed violence toward this relative since they were first diagnosed.
Approximately 12% of respondents with psychiatric disorders reported having been a victim of violence by the relative with whom they spend the most time or having committed violence toward this relative in the past 6 months.
Violence between respondents with psychiatric disorders and their relatives was often bidirectional.
Persons with disorders such as bipolar, depression, or schizophrenia are at a modestly increased risk of committing violence (13), with approximately half of victims being relatives (4). Relatedly, studies have emerged examining violence by persons with psychiatric disorders toward intimate partners, caregivers, and other relatives (5, 6). However, similar to the research bias in studies of community violence by this population, overwhelmingly more studies have examined violence by persons with psychiatric disorders toward relatives (5, 6) than vice versa (7). The primary objective of the present analyses, which examined online survey responses from a sample of community-residing persons in the United States who had psychiatric disorders, was to examine the rates at which respondents were victims of violence by reference relatives since first being diagnosed and in the past 6 months. Persons with psychiatric disorders who are victims of violence and perpetrators of violence overlap considerably (8), and much of the violence involving this population, especially family violence, may be bidirectional. The secondary objective was to examine the extent to which victimization and perpetration of violence involving persons with psychiatric disorders and reference relatives co-occurred.

Methods

This study was approved by the institutional review board at the University of Pennsylvania and was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Between December 2015 and March 2017, 523 adults diagnosed as having a mental illness completed an online survey. We conducted an online survey because surveys result in less social desirability bias than interviews (9) and enable recruiting clinically and geographically diverse samples. Most people with serious and nonserious psychiatric disorders use the Internet (10, 11).
Respondents were recruited from mental health organizations across the United States by using online (i.e., e-mail Listservs, e-newsletters, Web sites, and social media posts), and in-person (printed flyer) advertisements. Advertisements included a Web address where prospective respondents could obtain more information regarding the study and participate after consenting. Eligibility criteria included being at least 18 years of age, residing in the United States, and having a mental illness diagnosis, per self-report. Most respondents completed the survey in less than 20 minutes. Of those who began the survey, 85% completed it. There were no significant differences in the race-ethnicity or gender of completers versus noncompleters.
Victimization and perpetration of violence between respondents and reference relatives, since first diagnosis and in the past 6 months, were measured with questions closely adapted from the MacArthur Community Violence Instrument (MCVI) (4). The MCVI differentiates acts of violence on the basis of severity, categorizing acts according to recently updated labels as either “minor violence” or “serious violence” (12). Acts of minor violence were defined as battery that did not result in injury or involve the use of a weapon. Acts of serious violence were defined as battery resulting in injury or involving the use of a weapon or any act of threatening with a knife, gun, or other lethal object in hand. In a slight divergence from the MCVI, sexual violence was not measured because this study’s focus was physical violence. Three categories of violence outcomes were created, measured dichotomously (occurred versus did not occur): minor violence (at least one act of minor violence was reported but an act of serious violence was not), serious violence (at least one act of serious violence was reported with or without an act of minor violence), and any violence (at least one act of minor or serious violence was reported) (12). Other variables were measured with straightforward questions. We computed simple descriptive statistics as well as chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests.

Results

Respondents reported that they became aware of the study through the National Alliance on Mental Illness (N=127, 24%), Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance (N=118, 23%), consumer-run organizations (N=68, 13%), Facebook groups pertaining to mental illness (N=58, 11%), inpatient or outpatient mental health treatment (N=37, 7%), the International Association of Peer Supporters (N=16, 3%), state division of mental health Listservs (N=12, 2%), a chronic suicide support forum (N=9, 2%), and We Search Together (N=7, 1%). Fourteen percent (N=71) did not respond or provided nondescript responses (e.g., “online”).
The mean±SD age of respondents was 43.1±14.39 years (range 18–73). Almost 80% (N=414) were female. In terms of race-ethnicity, 88% (N=460) of respondents were non-Hispanic Caucasian, 5% (N=26) were African American, 3% (N=14) were Hispanic of any race, 1% (N=7) were Asian, <1% (N=2) were Native American, and 3% (N=14) were of mixed race. Primary diagnoses were bipolar disorder (N=203, 39%), depression (N=174, 33%), anxiety-related disorder (N=64, 12%), schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder (N=36, 7%), and other disorders (N=46, 9%), including posttraumatic stress, attention-deficit hyperactivity, borderline personality, and eating disorders. One-third of respondents were married (N=167), and 47% (N=251) had a college degree. The median category for annual income was $10,000–$19,999. Sixteen percent (N=83) had been hospitalized for a psychiatric disorder in the past year, and 47% (N=248) were not involved in the labor market.
The mean age of reference relatives was 50.32±16.89 years (range 18–87), and half were female (N=260). Their race-ethnicity closely resembled that of respondents, and the median annual income category was $20,000–$39,999. In relation to respondents, reference relatives were romantic partners (N=239, 46%), parents (N=143, 27%), siblings (N=53, 10%), or other relatives (N=88, 17%). Seventy percent (N=367) of respondents and reference relatives co-resided in the past 6 months.
Since respondents were first diagnosed as having a mental health condition, 15% (N=81), 9% (N=48), and 24% (N=129) reported having been the victim of minor, serious, and any violence, respectively, by reference relatives. Twenty-one percent (N=110), 5% (N=26), and 26% (N=136) reported having committed minor, serious, and any violence, respectively, toward reference relatives since first diagnosis.
More than 55% of respondents who reported perpetrating any violence since initial diagnosis also reported being the victim of any violence, and vice versa (Table 1). Rates of respondents having perpetrated any violence toward reference relatives were significantly different based on relationship type (e.g., romantic partner, parents, siblings, other). Similarly, significant differences in rates of perpetration among respondents who were also victims were found on the basis of relationship type. Rates of victimization, perpetration, and their co-occurrence did not differ by diagnosis or sex of respondents.
TABLE 1. Characteristics of persons with a psychiatric disorder (N=523), by victimization by and perpetration of any violence involving reference relatives since first diagnosisa
 VictimizationPerpetrationVictimization in cases of perpetrationPerpetration in cases of victimization
CharacteristicN%χ2pN%χ2pN%χ2pN%χ2p
Overall12925  13626  7656  7659  
Diagnosis  1.73b.79  8.59b.07   .93   .78
 Bipolar5326  6030  3457  3464  
 Depression4325  4124  2458  2456  
 Anxiety related1320  1016  660  646  
 Schizophrenia719  822  450  457  
 Other1328  1737  847  861  
Sex  .05c.82  1.14c.29  .07c.79  .35c.56
 Female10325  11227  6255  6260  
 Male2624  2422  1458  1454  
Relation of reference relative  1.10d.56  18.77d<.001  1.67d.43  6.95d.03
 Romantic partner6427  8335  4554  4570  
 Parent3222  3122  1652  1650  
 Other family member3323  2216  1568  1545  
a
Where N≤5, Fisher’s exact test was performed in lieu of chi-square test.
b
df=4.
c
df=1.
d
df=2.
Eight percent (N=44), 4% (N=23), and 13% (N=67) of respondents reported having been a victim of minor, serious, and any violence, respectively, by reference relatives in the past 6 months. Ten percent (N=51), 2% (N=13), and 12% (N=64) reported having committed minor, serious, and any violence, respectively, toward reference relatives in the past 6 months.
Approximately 40% of respondents who reported perpetrating any violence in the past 6 months also reported being the victim of any violence, and vice versa (Table 2). Rates of having perpetrated any violence toward reference relatives in the past 6 months were significantly different based on relationship type. Rates of perpetration among respondents who were also victims also differed according to relationship type. Rates of victimization, perpetration, and their co-occurrence did not differ by diagnosis or sex of respondents.
TABLE 2. Characteristics of persons with a psychiatric disorder (N=523), by victimization by and perpetration of any violence involving reference relatives in the past 6 monthsa
 VictimizationPerpetrationVictimization in cases of perpetrationPerpetration in cases of victimization
CharacteristicN%χ2pN%χ2pN%χ2pN%χ2p
Overall6713  6412  2641  2639  
Diagnosis   .63   .63   .62   .55
 Bipolar2713  2814  1139  1141  
 Depression2213  1911  737  732  
 Anxiety related812  812  562  562  
 Schizophrenia26  26  0  0  
 Other817  716  343  337  
Sex  .11b.74  .59b.44  1.07b.30  .01b.91
 Female5213  5313  2038  2038  
 Male1514  1110  654  640  
Relation of reference relative  2.24c.33  23.39c<.001   1.00   .03
 Romantic partner3615  4720  1940  1953  
 Parent1712  118  545  529  
 Other family member1410  64  233  214  
a
Where N≤5, Fisher’s exact test was performed in lieu of chi-square test.
b
df=1.
c
df=2.

Discussion

This is the first study we know of that investigated both victimization by and perpetration of family violence involving persons with psychiatric disorders and not exclusively involving intimate partners. Using a definition of physical violence similar to that of “any violence” in this study, the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey estimated that 2.9% of women and 3.8% of men have been victims of physical violence by an intimate partner in the past year (13). These estimates are in strong contrast to the results of this study: of respondents reporting on an intimate partner, 15% had been a victim of violence, and 20% had committed violence in the past 6 months. Rates of violence between non-intimate-partner family members are considerably lower than rates of violence involving intimate partners (14); still, 4%−12% of respondents reporting on a non-intimate-partner relative indicated victimization or perpetration of violence in the past 6 months, with most rates being 8% or greater (Table 2). These results agree with extant studies that have found that violence and conflict occur at elevated rates in families of persons with psychiatric disorders (5, 7), surely reflecting considerable stress experienced by persons with psychiatric disorders and by their families.
This study makes a unique contribution by examining rates at which persons with psychiatric disorders were victims of violence and by contributing data that rates of perpetration and victimization were nearly identical. Much of the research on this topic has examined violence by persons with psychiatric disorders toward caregivers, primarily mothers (6). This study did not specifically examine caregivers; however, this study found that reference relatives who were parents—nearly all were mothers providing care to respondents—were at least as likely to have been violent toward respondents as the converse.
We decided to collect data from persons with psychiatric disorders because the perspective of this population is largely absent in studies on this topic. Of possible report sources, self-reports from persons with psychiatric disorders yield a majority of recorded events of violence (4). Additionally, estimates of violence risk relying on self-reports from persons with psychiatric disorders do not differ from those relying on official records (3). Consequently, we believe the risk of respondents having underreported violence committed by them is likely modest. We consider our sample to be most representative of persons with mood disorders, particularly those who are members of mental health support organizations. Limitations of the sample were that it had disproportionately high levels of educational attainment and inadequate diversity regarding sex and race-ethnicity, which often occurs when recruiting from mental health support organizations.

Conclusions

Results of this study underscore for researchers and practitioners the importance of acknowledging the risk of family violence not only by but also toward persons with psychiatric disorders. Although a wealth of research demonstrates a considerable overlap among persons with psychiatric disorders who are victims and perpetrators of violence, most studies have not been able to examine bidirectional or mutual violence among this population (8). Approximately 55% and 40% (Table 1 and Table 2) of violence since first diagnosis and in the past 6 months was bidirectional, respectively. These finding are roughly in agreement with a review of population and community-based samples indicating that violence in 55% of cases of intimate-partner violence is bidirectional (15). Assessing for risk of perpetrating family violence involving this population and intervening in such cases should entail assessing for and/or addressing victimization, and vice versa.

References

1.
Fazel S, Lichtenstein P, Grann M, et al: Bipolar disorder and violent crime: new evidence from population-based longitudinal studies and systematic review. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010; 67:931–938
2.
Fazel S, Wolf A, Chang Z, et al: Depression and violence: a Swedish population study. Lancet Psychiatry 2015; 2:224–232
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Fazel S, Gulati G, Linsell L, et al: Schizophrenia and violence: systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS Med 2009; 6:e1000120
4.
Monahan J, Steadman HJ, Silver E, et al: Rethinking Risk Assessment: The MacArthur Study of Mental Disorder and Violence. New York, Oxford University Press, 2001
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Labrum T, Solomon PL: Rates of victimization of violence committed by relatives with psychiatric disorders. J Interpers Violence 2017; 32:2955–2974
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Onwumere J, Zhou Z, Kuipers E: Informal caregiving relationships in psychosis: reviewing the impact of patient violence on caregivers. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1530
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Khalifeh H, Oram S, Osborn D, et al: Recent physical and sexual violence against adults with severe mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Rev Psychiatry 2016; 28:433–451
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Swanson JW, Swartz MS, Van Dorn RA, et al: A national study of violent behavior in persons with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006; 63:490–499
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Smith SG, Zhang X, Basile KC, et al: The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2015 Data Brief–Updated Release. Atlanta, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/2015data-brief508.pdf
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Reaves BA: Police Response to Domestic Violence, 2006–2015. Washington, DC, US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2017. https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/prdv0615.pdf
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Langhinrichsen-Rohling J, Misra TA, Selwyn C, et al: Rates of bidirectional versus unidirectional intimate partner violence across samples, sexual orientations, and race/ethnicities: a comprehensive review. Partn Abus 2012; 3:199–230

Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to Psychiatric Services
Go to Psychiatric Services
Psychiatric Services
Pages: 498 - 501
PubMed: 32041513

History

Received: 28 July 2019
Revision received: 14 November 2019
Accepted: 21 November 2019
Published online: 11 February 2020
Published in print: May 01, 2020

Keywords

  1. family
  2. caregiver
  3. bipolar
  4. schizophrenia
  5. serious mental illness

Authors

Details

Travis Labrum, Ph.D., L.C.S.W. [email protected]
School of Social Work, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh (Labrum); School of Social Policy and Practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (Solomon, Marcus).
Phyllis Solomon, Ph.D.
School of Social Work, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh (Labrum); School of Social Policy and Practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (Solomon, Marcus).
Steven Marcus, Ph.D.
School of Social Work, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh (Labrum); School of Social Policy and Practice, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia (Solomon, Marcus).

Notes

Send correspondence to Dr. Labrum ([email protected]).

Competing Interests

Dr. Marcus receives consulting fees from Allergan and Sage Therapeutics. The other authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests.

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