Eating Disorder Treatment Access in the United States: Perceived Inequities Among Treatment Seekers
Abstract
Objective:
Methods:
Results:
Conclusions:
Barriers to Treatment Access for Eating Disorders
The Present Study
Methods
Participants
BTA Measures
Eating Disorder Symptoms
Data Analysis
Results
Sample Selection and Characteristics
Characteristic | N | % |
---|---|---|
Race-ethnicity | | |
Hispanic | 126 | 6 |
American Indian or Alaska Native | 1 | <1 |
Asian or South Asian | 0 | — |
Black or African American | 5 | <1 |
Caucasian or White | 38 | 2 |
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | 0 | — |
Other | 0 | — |
Multiracial | 10 | 1 |
Not reported | 72 | 4 |
Non-Hispanic | 1,869 | 94 |
American Indian or Alaska Native | 7 | <1 |
Asian or South Asian | 38 | 2 |
Black or African American | 30 | 2 |
Caucasian or White | 1,707 | 86 |
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | 3 | <1 |
Other | 17 | 1 |
Multiracial | 61 | 3 |
Not reported | 6 | <1 |
Gender | | |
Cisgender man | 28 | 1 |
Cisgender woman | 1,732 | 87 |
Transgender man | 29 | 1 |
Transgender woman | 6 | <1 |
Gender nonbinary | 170 | 9 |
Prefer not to disclose | 21 | 1 |
Not reported | 9 | <1 |
Sexual orientation | | |
Heterosexual | 1,179 | 59 |
Gay or lesbian | 166 | 8 |
Bisexual | 391 | 20 |
Pansexual | 119 | 6 |
Asexual | 73 | 4 |
Queer | 31 | 2 |
Demisexual | 7 | <1 |
Polysexual | 1 | <1 |
Graysexual | 3 | <1 |
Homoflexible | 1 | <1 |
Heteroflexible | 1 | <1 |
Omnisexual | 1 | <1 |
Unsure/questioning | 5 | <1 |
Unlabeled | 5 | <1 |
Not reported | 12 | 1 |
Disability | | |
Yes | 395 | 20 |
No | 1,600 | 80 |
Employment status | | |
Employed full-time | 910 | 46 |
Employed part-time | 302 | 15 |
Unemployed | 212 | 11 |
Student | 430 | 22 |
Retired | 16 | 1 |
Other | 123 | 6 |
Not reported | 2 | <1 |
Highest level of education | | |
Some high school | 28 | 1 |
Completed high school | 120 | 6 |
Some college | 437 | 22 |
Associate degree | 154 | 8 |
Bachelor’s degree | 730 | 37 |
Master’s degree | 453 | 23 |
Professional degree | 71 | 4 |
Not reported | 2 | <1 |
Annual household income ($) | | |
0–10,000 | 166 | 8 |
10,001–20,000 | 198 | 10 |
20,001–30,000 | 187 | 9 |
30,001–40,000 | 137 | 7 |
40,001–50,000 | 155 | 8 |
50,001–60,000 | 160 | 8 |
60,001–70,000 | 114 | 6 |
70,001–80,000 | 104 | 5 |
80,001–90,000 | 86 | 4 |
90,001–100,000 | 87 | 4 |
100,001–150,000 | 205 | 10 |
150,001–200,000 | 83 | 4 |
>200,000 | 120 | 6 |
Prefer not to disclose | 168 | 8 |
Not reported | 25 | 1 |
Location | | |
Urban | 704 | 35 |
Suburban | 1,051 | 53 |
Rural | 222 | 11 |
Not reported | 18 | 1 |
Characteristic | N | % |
---|---|---|
Any self-reported eating disorder diagnosisa | | |
Anorexia nervosa | 1,113 | 56 |
Bulimia nervosa | 514 | 26 |
Binge eating disorder | 238 | 12 |
Atypical anorexia nervosa | 412 | 21 |
Atypical bulimia nervosa | 43 | 2 |
Avoidant or restrictive food intake disorder | 165 | 8 |
Other specified feeding or eating disorder | 260 | 13 |
Eating disorder not otherwise specified | 474 | 24 |
Never received a formal eating disorder diagnosis but suspicion of having an eating disorder | 229 | 11 |
Never received a formal eating disorder diagnosis and no suspicion of having an eating disorderb | 10 | 1 |
Primary self-reported eating disorder diagnosis | | |
Anorexia nervosa | 594 | 30 |
Bulimia nervosa | 173 | 9 |
Binge eating disorder | 146 | 7 |
Atypical anorexia nervosa | 233 | 12 |
Atypical bulimia nervosa | 8 | <1 |
Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder | 96 | 5 |
Other specified feeding or eating disorder | 162 | 8 |
Not listed | 128 | 6 |
Recovered from eating disorder | 425 | 21 |
Not reported | 30 | 2 |
Eating disorder behavior episode frequency in previous 28 days (M±SD) | | |
Binge eating | 4±11 | |
Loss-of-control eating | 4±10 | |
Purging | 3±15 | |
Compensatory exercise | 6±9 | |
Self-reported anxiety disorder diagnosisa | | |
Generalized anxiety disorder | 1,436 | 72 |
Social anxiety disorder | 420 | 21 |
Panic disorder | 330 | 17 |
Separation anxiety disorder | 52 | 3 |
Agoraphobia | 56 | 3 |
Specific phobia | 60 | 3 |
Illness anxiety disorder | 22 | 1 |
Obsessive-compulsive disorder | 553 | 28 |
PTSD | 854 | 43 |
Not formally diagnosed as having an anxiety disorder but frequent experience of anxiety | 183 | 9 |
Not formally diagnosed as having an anxiety disorder and no suspicion of having an anxiety disorder | 12 | 1 |
Self-reported mood disorder | | |
Major depressive disorder | 965 | 48 |
Bipolar I | 88 | 4 |
Bipolar II | 181 | 9 |
Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia) | 131 | 7 |
Premenstrual dysphoric disorder | 111 | 6 |
Cyclothymic disorder | 13 | 1 |
Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder | 4 | <1 |
No diagnosis of mood disorder but suspicion of having one | 43 | 2 |
No diagnosis of a mood disorder and no suspicion of having one | 6 | <1 |
Other co-occurring psychiatric diagnoses | | |
Borderline personality disorder | 223 | 11 |
Dissociative identity disorder | 17 | 1 |
Substance use disorder | 185 | 9 |
Autism spectrum disorder | 68 | 3 |
Self-reported suicide and nonsuicidal self-injury historya | | |
Attempted suicide | 657 | 33 |
Suicidal thoughts or suicidal ideation | 1,456 | 73 |
Nonsuicidal self-injury | 1,136 | 57 |
Age at eating disorder onset (M±SD years) | 14±5 | |
Age at eating disorder diagnosis (M±SD years) | 21±7 | |
Treatment delay (M±SD years) | 7±7 | |
N of treatment episodes (M±SD) | 5±9 | |
Sought treatment for an eating disorder | | |
Yes | 1,793 | 90 |
No | 161 | 8 |
Not reported | 41 | 2 |
Received specialized treatment for an eating disorder | | |
Yes | 1,454 | 73 |
No | 496 | 25 |
Not reported | 45 | 2 |
Levels of care receiveda | | |
Inpatient | 643 | 32 |
Residential | 739 | 37 |
Partial hospital program | 874 | 44 |
Intensive outpatient | 973 | 49 |
Outpatient therapy | 1,569 | 79 |
Outpatient dietitian | 1,207 | 61 |
In recovery or fully recovered from eating disorder | | |
Yes | 1,170 | 59 |
No | 780 | 39 |
Not reported | 45 | 2 |
Health insurance during care seeking | | |
Yes | 1,769 | 89 |
No | 194 | 10 |
Not reported | 32 | 2 |
Step taken to afford treatmenta | | |
Worked overtime or a second job | 417 | 21 |
Took out a second mortgage | 38 | 2 |
Sold personal belongings | 266 | 13 |
Took out personal loan | 151 | 8 |
Stopped paying student loans | 258 | 13 |
Accrued credit card debt | 504 | 25 |
Arranged a payment plan or sliding scale rate with a provider | 757 | 38 |
Other | 575 | 29 |
Negative experience with treatment due to unethical or negligent treatment | | |
Yes | 897 | 45 |
No | 948 | 48 |
Not reported | 150 | 8 |
Recommended for a level of care that was inappropriate and potentially financially motivated by the person who recommended it | | |
Yes | 162 | 8 |
No | 1,686 | 85 |
Not reported | 147 | 7 |
Received unhelpful or damaging comments or care from providers not offering specific care for eating disorder (e.g., primary care or other providers) | | |
Yes | 1,451 | 73 |
No | 450 | 23 |
Not reported | 94 | 5 |
BTA Characteristics
Barrier | N | % |
---|---|---|
Lifetime financial | 1,610 | 81 |
Insurance does not cover the right level of care | 867 | 43 |
Could not figure out insurance | 436 | 22 |
Could not figure out how to file an appeal | 233 | 12 |
Appeal was denied | 336 | 17 |
Insurance plan limits the number of visits | 459 | 23 |
Recommended level of care was denied | 521 | 26 |
Prematurely discharged from the right level of care | 598 | 30 |
Could not afford out-of-pocket costs even though insurance covered the treatment | 612 | 31 |
Insurance coverage ended before patient or treatment team was ready | 551 | 28 |
Deemed not medically sick enough to receive the level of care needed | 588 | 29 |
Not eligible for insurance | 482 | 24 |
No eating disorder providers in network | 726 | 36 |
The best eating disorder providers did not accept any insurance | 786 | 39 |
Recommended for treatment that insurance did not pay for | 678 | 34 |
Geographic | 785 | 39 |
No nearby eating disorder providers | 673 | 34 |
No treatment centers in state | 385 | 19 |
Disorder identification | 1,599 | 80 |
Not diagnosed as having an eating disorder until it was much more entrenched and harder to treat | 1,119 | 56 |
Discouraged from seeking treatment because illness did not seem severe enough | 867 | 43 |
Prescribed weight loss or diet changes instead of recognition of a mental health issue | 628 | 31 |
Misdiagnosed as having a general medical illness instead of an eating disorder | 261 | 13 |
Sociocultural | 1,455 | 73 |
Bias in the medical community against people like me | 544 | 27 |
Bias in the eating disorder community against people like me | 465 | 23 |
Weight stigma as a barrier to accessing quality eating disorder treatment | 1,386 | 69 |
Treatment quality | 1,323 | 66 |
Discharged from higher level of care without step-down care | 630 | 32 |
When moving from one provider to another, no notes were shared and had to start from scratch | 594 | 30 |
Family or loved ones were available to be involved but not included in treatment | 185 | 9 |
Treatment received did not consider race, gender, sexuality, religion, or culture | 217 | 11 |
Treatment received was focused exclusively on weight and not any underlying issues | 667 | 33 |
Treatment received focused only on eating disorder and did not address other relevant diagnoses | 736 | 37 |
Associations of Disparities in BTAs With Demographic Characteristics
Additional BTA Findings
Barrier | Endorsed | Not endorsed | t | df | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | ||||
Lifetime | | | | | | | |
Age at eating disorder onset (years) | 14 | 5 | 15 | 5 | 1.09 | 1,948 | .28 |
Age at eating disorder diagnosis (years) | 21 | 7 | 21 | 7 | −0.63 | 1,687 | .53 |
Eating disorder treatment delay (years) | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 | −1.18 | 1,669 | .24 |
N of eating disorder symptoms | 3 | 2 | 3 | 1 | −6.12 | 1,954 | <.001 |
BMI | 25 | 9 | 25 | 9 | 0.58 | 1,423 | .56 |
Geographic | | | | | | | |
Age at eating disorder onset (years) | 14 | 5 | 14 | 5 | −0.38 | 1,948 | .71 |
Age at eating disorder diagnosis (years) | 21 | 7 | 21 | 7 | 0.56 | 1,687 | .58 |
Eating disorder treatment delay (years) | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 0.70 | 1,669 | .49 |
N of eating disorder symptoms | 3 | 2 | 3 | 2 | −5.89 | 1,954 | <.001 |
BMI | 24 | 8 | 25 | 9 | 3.43 | 1,423 | <.001 |
Disorder identification | | | | | | | |
Age at eating disorder onset (years) | 14 | 5 | 15 | 5 | 4.56 | 1,948 | <.001 |
Age at eating disorder diagnosis (years) | 21 | 7 | 18 | 6 | −7.57 | 541.10 | <.001 |
Eating disorder treatment delay (years) | 7 | 7 | 3 | 5 | −11.52 | 630.62 | <.001 |
N of eating disorder symptoms | 3 | 1 | 3 | 2 | −4.76 | 1,954 | <.001 |
BMI | 25 | 9 | 22 | 6 | −8.04 | 668.86 | <.001 |
Sociocultural | | | | | | | |
Age at eating disorder onset (years) | 14 | 5 | 15 | 5 | 4.42 | 1,941 | <.001 |
Age at eating disorder diagnosis (years) | 21 | 7 | 20 | 7 | −1.94 | 1,685 | .05 |
Eating disorder treatment delay (years) | 7 | 8 | 5 | 6 | −5.14 | 931.29 | <.001 |
N of eating disorder symptoms | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | −9.61 | 1,947 | <.001 |
BMI | 26 | 9 | 22 | 7 | −8.34 | 991.37 | <.001 |
Treatment quality | | | | | | | |
Age at eating disorder onset (years) | 14 | 5 | 15 | 5 | 1.83 | 1,948 | .07 |
Age at eating disorder diagnosis (years) | 20 | 7 | 22 | 8 | 5.06 | 722.62 | <.001 |
Eating disorder treatment delay (years) | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 3.44 | 680.03 | <.001 |
N of eating disorder symptoms | 3 | 2 | 3 | 2 | −3.57 | 1,954 | <.001 |
BMI | 24 | 8 | 25 | 9 | 1.99 | 1,423 | .05 |
Discussion
Conclusions
Supplementary Material
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