T3 Augmentation in Major Depressive Disorder: Safety Considerations
Publication: American Journal of Psychiatry
Many cases of major depression are difficult to treat, and effective options are an urgent priority. Triiodothyronine (T3) has been used to augment or accelerate treatment of major depression, and while there is good evidence for its efficacy in the short term, there is a limited evidence base to guide long-term adjunctive use. In a collaborative case from the endocrinology and psychiatry perspectives, we review the evidence for the safety of this intervention. A case presentation from our clinical practice is used to illustrate issues of efficacy, adherence, and use in the setting of medical comorbidity, and suggested guidelines are presented for monitoring the safety of T3 when used as longer-term augmentation.
Mechanism of Action of T3 Augmentation
Abnormalities of thyroid regulation have been detected in many patients with depressive syndromes. Patients with major depression appear to have a higher incidence of subclinical thyroid abnormalities (1), and it is clear that diseases of the thyroid can have a profound effect on mood.
Thyroid hormone is important for protein synthesis and metabolism for virtually every organ, including the brain. The release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary is regulated by thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus. TSH in turn prompts the release of mainly levothyroxine (T4), and to a lesser extent T3, from the thyroid gland; T4 is considered a “prohormone” with very little intrinsic activity and is transformed in the peripheral tissues into T3, the biologically active form of thyroid hormone. Through negative feedback, pituitary TSH levels are regulated by the serum free T4 and free T3, and even subtle changes often lead to substantial changes in TSH levels, making TSH a particularly useful screening test for hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis function (2).
T3 acts in the cell nucleus, stimulating gene expression and energy metabolism in cells in every organ and potentially enhancing neurogenesis in the CNS (2). T3, both alone and in combination with fluoxetine, modulates gene transcription, with changes in mRNA coding for the 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors (3). In the CNS, T4 conversion to T3 occurs intracellularly, which may be why T3 administration seems to have particular benefit in the treatment of affective disorders (4). The enzymes responsible for the conversion of T4 to T3 are also different in the CNS, perhaps explaining individual responses to T3 supplementation and the variability of symptoms in subclinical hypothyroidism. Cooper-Kazaz et al. (5) have demonstrated that genetic polymorphisms in the type 1 deiodinase (DIO1) gene, which assists in the conversion of T4 to T3, might help determine which patients will respond to T3 augmentation.
It is also possible that T3 acts directly as a neurotransmitter or that it directly influences neurotransmission through monoamines (3). Actions at noradrenergic, serotonergic, and beta-adrenergic neurons have all been demonstrated, largely through studies of hypo- and hyperthyroid states. Rodent studies have demonstrated serotonergic effects of T3 and T4, supporting the idea that serotonergic transmission is enhanced by normal thyroid functioning, potentially through desensitization of the 5-HT1A autoreceptor (6). T3 was initially thought to be active solely within the noradrenergic projection pathway, and it may serve as a co-transmitter with norepinephrine in the limbic system, but it has also been demonstrated in high concentrations in the serotonergic raphe nuclei and their projections (7).
Evidence Base for Thyroid Augmentation
T3 in Conjunction With Tricyclic Antidepressants
Augmentation of antidepressants with T3 is one of the oldest evidence-based treatments for major depressive disorder. In 1969, Prange et al. conducted a pivotal study (8) demonstrating that administration of liothyronine enhanced response to tricyclic antidepressants in patients with treatment-resistant depression. Thyroid function was monitored, but methods available at that time were not sensitive or specific. Based on ankle jerk reflexes and protein-bound iodine assays, patients in the study appeared to have elevated thyroid function after treatment. Many subsequent studies have confirmed the Prange et al. study's finding of efficacy, but few have formally assessed the HPT axis during treatment.
The majority of the evidence base for use of T3 is for its coadministration with tricyclics. Two meta-analyses of T3 coadministration with tricyclics have been published, one reviewing acceleration trials (9) and the other augmentation trials (10). Acceleration is defined as the use of T3 at commencement of antidepressant treatment to enhance and hasten response. Augmentation is the administration of T3 in patients who are unresponsive or partially responsive to an adequate course of antidepressant treatment initiated previously.
Acceleration of antidepressant response with T3.
A meta-analysis by Altshuler et al. (9) of six double-blind, placebo-controlled studies (125 patients total) of T3 acceleration of tricyclics was positive. By definition, these were short-term studies of 2 to 3 weeks, and none discussed the option of continuing T3 once antidepressant response was achieved. In addition, many were conducted before the advent of more sensitive assays of thyroid functioning in the late 1980s. Three of these acceleration studies (11–13) obtained initial lab values of protein-bound iodine and looked at ankle jerk reflexes and serum T4 binding, but none performed follow-up testing. No differences in baseline thyroid tests were found between patients who responded to T3 and those who did not, but some authors speculated that there may have been subtle thyroid dysfunction in the responders that was undetectable by the assays. In addition, a significant gender effect was observed, with women responding more robustly than men. While women generally have been found to have higher rates of both comorbid depressive syndromes and thyroid disease, a consistent association has not been replicated.
Augmentation of antidepressant response with T3.
Aronson et al. (10) conducted a positive meta-analysis of T3 augmentation of tricyclics, finding eight controlled clinical studies with 292 patients. The studies were up to 12 weeks long, and several performed baseline and follow-up modern thyroid assays (4, 14–16). One positive study in 1977 conducted initial thyroid screening and additionally tested the CSF monoamine metabolites 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid and homovanillic acid, hypothesizing that the mechanism of treatment with T3 was an increase of available monoamines (17). However, the study found no differences in CSF monoamine metabolites between the placebo and active T3 groups or between responders and nonresponders to T3.
Thase et al. (14) found no association between results of thyroid function tests or TRH stimulation testing at baseline and outcome in a subset of patients treated with T3. Joffe and Singer (4) evaluated T3 versus T4 in a randomized trial and found significant changes after 3 weeks in T3, T4, free T4, TSH, and T3 resin uptake in both groups, but these changes were not positive predictors of response; the main finding was that T3 was more effective than T4 as an augmenter. A 2-week augmentation study of lithium and T3 (15) found in 1993 that the two were equally effective and outperformed placebo, with baseline TSH documented as being within normal range.
T3 in Conjunction With SSRIs
Recently a number of studies have examined the augmentation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) with thyroid hormone, but the data are more limited than with tricyclics. A review by Cooper-Kazaz and Lerer (18) found that not enough data were available yet for a meta-analysis but that a positive trend was revealed when the available double- and single-blind studies were analyzed. Papakostas et al. (19) reported a negative meta-analysis using strict inclusion criteria and finding only three adequate double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled studies. The Sequenced Treatment Alternatives to Relieve Depression (STAR*D) study (20) evaluated SSRI augmentation using either lithium or T3 and found no statistical difference in efficacy between the treatments, but T3 had superior tolerability and adherence. All of these studies were short term, with the longest (STAR*D) lasting 12 weeks.
Two studies of T3 in combination with SSRIs included baseline and follow-up thyroid testing. In the first, Cooper-Kazaz et al. (21) compared sertraline (50–100 mg) combined with either T3 (25–35 μg) or placebo in an 8-week study and found that the sertraline-T3 combination produced superior response and remission rates. After 8 weeks of T3 supplementation, the mean TSH level fell significantly from 1.70 μIU/ml at baseline to 0.28 μIU/ml in responders, whereas nonresponders had mean pre- and posttreatment levels of 1.88 μIU/ml and 0.76 μIU/ml, respectively; responsiveness to treatment was significantly correlated (p=0.01) with the change in TSH level, suggesting that the therapeutic benefit could have been due to changes in the thyroid axis in this population. In a post hoc analysis, baseline T3 levels in patients who responded to T3 augmentation were significantly lower than in those who did not respond (107.60 ng/dl compared with 137.4 ng/dl, p=0.002). There was also a small but significant decline in TSH levels in the placebo group.
A combination study by Appelhof et al. (22) in which 124 patients were randomly assigned to receive paroxetine combined with 25 μg of T3, 50 μg of T3, or placebo showed a statistically significant dose-dependent increase of T3 levels along with lowered T4 (the final T4 levels after 8 weeks of treatment were 0.9 pmol/liter in the placebo group, 0.6 pmol/liter in the 25-μg T3 group, and 0.4 pmol/liter in the 50-μg T3 group). Significant changes in thyroid function on testing were associated with significant side effects in nine of 28 patients in the 50-μg group, including sweating, tremor, nervousness, and palpitations, but there were no significant differences between the 25-μg T3 and placebo groups. It is possible that noradrenergic effects of paroxetine due to norepinephrine transporter blockade exacerbated somatic symptoms that were consistent with a hyperthyroid state. Efficacy outcome was negative, with no differences between placebo and the two T3 groups.
While T3 compared well with lithium in STAR*D (20), and results with T3 as an augmentation or combination strategy are encouraging, more controlled trials are needed to fully determine the efficacy of T3 in combination with SSRIs.
Safety in Longer-Term Studies
In a study of pre- and postmenopausal women on high-dosage T4 (not T3) for bipolar disorder or major depressive disorder, Gyulai et al. (23) found no significant differences in bone density after at least 1 year of treatment (with several patients having up to 5 years of treatment), but they noted a nonsignificantly greater decline in bone density in postmenopausal women. Prior to follow-up scanning for bone density, the mean TSH level on high dosages of T4 (300–500 μg/day) was normal at 0.4 μIU/ml. Similarly, Kelly and Lieberman (24) administered up to 150 μg of T3 daily to 14 patients for an average duration of 24 months, and no cardiac or skeletal sequelae were detected.
Safety: The Perspective From Endocrinology
There is no consensus in endocrinology on use of thyroid hormone for the treatment of depression in euthyroid patients. When treating patients with hypothyroidism, endocrinology guidelines generally recommend using T4 monotherapy (25). Multiple studies, including a meta-analysis, have evaluated the difference between T4 monotherapy and T3/T4 combination therapy for the treatment of hypothyroidism. Overall no meaningful statistical differences have been found between the two regimens (26–31). Nevertheless, some studies have reported patient preference for combination therapy that was not explained by symptom outcomes, neurocognitive changes, or quality-of-life assessments (27). In one study (28), 44% of the patients reporting a preference for combination therapy had a suppressed TSH level, suggesting overreplacement of thyroid hormone. A study from Denmark (32) evaluated T4 monotherapy compared with combination T3/T4 therapy while maintaining equivalent TSH values. Quality-of-life scores and depression and anxiety rating scores were significantly better in seven of 11 categories with combined therapy compared with monotherapy, and 49% of patients preferred combination T4/T3 therapy, compared with 15% who preferred T4 monotherapy.
In euthyroid patients, high T3 dosages carry a higher risk of induction of hyperthyroidism. In this respect, preexisting hypertension, tachycardia, and hyperglycemia could all potentially be worsened by hyperthyroidism (33). Subclinical hyperthyroidism has also been associated with long-term side effects, including reduced bone mineral density and an increased risk of osteoporosis, especially in postmenopausal women (34, 35), and an increased risk of atrial arrhythmias (36). Thus, when thyroid hormones are used in treating depression, clinicians should closely monitor patients for biochemical or clinical evidence of hyperthyroidism.
Ideally, patients who are started on T3 augmentation for a psychiatric disorder should be monitored in the same manner as patients with hypothyroidism. TSH, free T4, and free T3 levels should be measured regularly, as well as whenever there is a report of increased anxiety, tremor, palpitations, insomnia, or other symptoms suggestive of hyperthyroidism. Patients should also be monitored for other conditions that could be exacerbated by T3 supplementation, including hypertension, tachycardia, osteopenia or osteoporosis, atrial arrhythmias, and hyperglycemia. Finally, it should be borne in mind that some beta-blockers influence thyroid hormone metabolism and plasma levels (37).
Conclusions and Recommendations
Pharmacologic augmentation strategies currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for major depressive disorder are limited to the second-generation antipsychotics aripiprazole and quetiapine, both of which are associated with safety concerns in long-term use. Lithium is another guideline-recommended agent, but it does not have a better tolerability profile than T3. Current textbooks and the 2010 APA guidelines (38) agree that there is good evidence for the use of T3 in depressive syndromes, but largely do not mention monitoring of thyroid functioning. Schatzberg et al. (39) suggest use of T3 in postmenopausal women or atypical depression and tapering augmentation after 60 days.
There is good evidence to suggest that T3 administration is helpful in the treatment of depressive states, but only limited data are available on long-term safety. Few of the randomized controlled studies of T3 included both initial and follow-up thyroid function testing; those that did such testing showed expected changes in the thyroid axis and were largely reassuring on the issue of significant side effects. Many psychiatrists are nevertheless uncomfortable prescribing thyroid hormones to essentially euthyroid patients, and some of our colleagues in endocrinology may also find this practice controversial.
In clinical decision making, the risk to health and safety from partially or inadequately treated major depression must be weighed against any putative risks of treatment. Findings from the STAR*D effectiveness trials (40) and from a meta-analysis (41) have highlighted shortcomings in the efficacy of antidepressants, which reinforces the need for psychiatrists to be flexible and creative in crafting their pharmacotherapy interventions for many patients suffering with major depression. The clinical case presented here highlights the morbidity from persistent depression in one patient in whom, for metabolic reasons, other augmentation strategies were considered high risk. In the case of T3 augmentation, based on the literature and our clinical experience, we would recommend the safety guidelines summarized in Figure 1.
Footnote
Received March 9, 2010; revision received Jan. 7, 2011; accepted Jan. 31, 2011.
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History
Received: 9 March 2010
Revision received: 7 January 2011
Accepted: 31 January 2011
Published online: 1 October 2011
Published in print: October 2011
Authors
Funding Information
Dr. O'Reardon has received research support or speaking or consulting fees from AstraZeneca, Bristol-Myers Squibb, CenRx Biopharma, Cyberonics, Eli Lilly, IC Axon, Magstim, Medtronic, and Neuronetics. Drs. Rosenthal and Goldner report no financial relationships with commercial interests.
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