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Published Online: 14 January 2016

Psychosis, Lack of Job Skills, and Criminal History: Associations With Employment in Two Samples of Homeless Men

Abstract

Objective:

This study examined factors associated with employment among homeless men with mental illness, particularly history of criminal justice involvement.

Methods:

Data from 569 homeless men in the 11-site Collaborative Initiative to Help End Chronic Homelessness (2004–2009) and 1,101 homeless male veterans in the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development—Veterans Affairs Supportive Housing program at 19 sites (1992–2003) were analyzed.

Results:

In neither sample was criminal or incarceration history significantly associated with job attainment or earnings for either black or white participants. In contrast, psychotic disorders and public-support income were negatively associated with job attainment and earnings. The majority of homeless veterans reported lifetime occupations as skilled or unskilled manual workers.

Conclusions:

These findings highlight the high rate of nonemployment among homeless men and suggest that employment among homeless men is not significantly impeded by a criminal record but by psychiatric problems and reliance on public-support income.
Concerns about limited employment opportunities for adults with criminal records have led to the creation of various national initiatives to support the ability of ex-offenders to obtain competitive employment and to contribute to society. For example, the Ban the Box campaign has advocated for removing screening questions about criminal records on hiring applications, which has led ten U.S. states to pass legislation supporting this cause. An abundance of research has documented the limiting effect of criminal records on employment opportunities (1,2), especially for black individuals (3,4). However, there has been limited study of this topic among homeless populations. Most research has focused on the intersection between the criminal justice system and homelessness rather than on the consequences of criminal justice involvement on employment among persons who are homeless (5,6). Understanding the association between criminal history and employment among adults who are homeless is important, given that efforts to help persons who are homeless involve not only providing housing but also supporting community integration and the ability to contribute to the workforce (7).
In this study, we used data from two multisite samples of homeless men—chronically homeless men and homeless veterans—to examine the association between criminal or incarceration history and employment by race. We also examined criminal or incarceration history in the context of psychiatric and substance use disorders and public-support income (for example, welfare and disability income), given that they have been found to be closely related to employment (811). It was hypothesized that criminal or incarceration history, severe mental illness, substance use disorders, and public-support income would all be negatively associated with employment and earnings for homeless men.

Methods

The first sample was composed of chronically homeless adults participating in the 11-site Collaborative Initiative to Help End Chronic Homelessness (CICH), implemented by the U.S. Interagency Council on Homelessness from 2004–2009 (12). Eligibility criteria included being chronically homeless, defined as continuously homeless for one year or more or having at least four episodes of homelessness in the past three years. There were no exclusion criteria on the basis of incarceration history. Data were collected through interviews with participants. For this study, incarceration history was defined as any reported lifetime incarceration. This study analyzed baseline data from 569 male participants at the time of enrollment in CICH.
The second sample was composed of homeless veterans admitted to the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development–Veterans Affairs (VA) Supportive Housing (HUD-VASH) program in 19 sites from 1992–2003. The HUD-VASH program is the largest supported-housing program for homeless U.S. veterans. Eligibility criteria during the period of data collection included being eligible for VA services, being homeless for at least 30 days, and having a psychiatric or substance use disorder. There were no exclusion criteria related to criminal history, except sex offenders were denied admission. Data were collected through interviews with homeless veterans. For this study, criminal history was defined as any report of having been arrested and charged with a criminal offense. This study analyzed baseline data from 1,101 male participants at the time of program admission.
The CICH and HUD-VASH samples were analyzed separately. First, participants were divided into those with or without an incarceration or criminal history. Second, bivariate comparisons of the sociodemographic, psychosocial, and employment characteristics of persons with and without incarceration or criminal histories were conducted by using t tests and chi square tests. Third, multivariable analyses of the effects of incarceration or criminal history on employment variables were conducted with analyses of covariance and logistic regressions adjusted for differences in sociodemographic and psychosocial characteristics. Effect sizes were calculated for significant differences by using Cohen’s d and odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Fourth, all aforementioned analyses were repeated separately for black and white participants in both samples to examine whether the results differed by race. Finally, analyses of covariance and logistic regressions were used with both the CICH and the HUD-VASH samples to construct models examining the association between incarceration and criminal history, psychiatric disorders, and public support in relation to employment variables. Statistical significance for all analyses was set at alpha=.01.

Results

There were no significant differences in the CICH sample in any employment variable or in public-support income between individuals with or without a history of incarceration (Table 1). Multivariable tests also found no significant differences on the basis of history of incarceration for any employment variable after the analyses controlled for differences in lifetime homelessness and rates of substance use disorder. Similar results were found when analyses were conducted separately for white (N=218) and black (N=275) participants.
TABLE 1. Characteristics of two samples of homeless men, by incarceration or criminal historya
VariableIncarceration or criminal historybTest of differencedf
NoYes
M%M%
Sample 1: chronically homeless men (N=569)
Total153100416100  
Age (M±SD)45.7±9.7 46.3±8.0 t=–.67233
Race    χ2=1.802
 White593915939  
 Black795219648  
 Other15105714  
Education (M±SD years)12.2±2.6 11.8±2.6 t=1.90567
Never married442910425χ2=.821
Lifetime homelessness (M±SD years)6.9±5.7 8.8±6.6 t=3.34*311
Psychiatric diagnosis      
 Schizophrenia32217418χ2=.721
 Major depression483111026χ2=1.361
 Bipolar disorder22147618χ2=1.191
 Posttraumatic stress disorder149266χ2= 1.441
 Substance use disorder905933079χ2=24.33**1
 Dual diagnosis644222755χ2=7.26*1
Any developmental disability1611399χ2=.131
Any major general medical problem905927566χ2=2.701
Longest full-time job (M±SD years)6.4±6.3 5.1±5.6 t=2.33556
Employment pattern, past 3 years    χ2=2.123
 Full-time18124110  
 Part-time442913633  
 Retired or disabled1494912  
 Unemployed765018845  
Employed at all, past month24167719χ2=.611
Hours worked per week, past month (M±SD)2.573.3±8.9 t=–.91567
Employment income, past month (M±SD $)46.4±173.7 47.7±181.2 t=–.07567
Public-support income, past month (M±SD)319.9±319.8 318.0±321.5 t=.06567
Sample 2: homeless male veterans (N=1,101)
Total222100879100  
Age (M±SD)43.8±8.7 43.1±7.7 t=1.17300
Race    χ2=1.272
 White994539145  
 Black1094941247  
 Other146759  
Education (M±SD years)12.7±1.8 12.4±1.8 t=2.141,098
Never married683129033χ2=.411
Lifetime homelessness (M±SD years)2.8±3.1 3.8±4.3 t=–3.85**442
Lifetime hospitalizations (M±SD)1.3±3.2 2.0±5.0 t=–2.47525
Psychiatric diagnosis      
 Psychotic disorder381710612χ2=3.991
 Mood disorder884225330χ2=9.54*1
 Posttraumatic stress disorder361713316χ2=.131
 Substance use disorder1265772082χ2=63.02**1
 Personality disorder311513316χ2= .231
 Dual diagnosis806446765χ2=.091
Longest full-time job (M±SD years)7.2±6.2 5.1±4.4 t=4.64**276
Had job longer than a month in past 3 years1516856465χ2=.991
Usual lifetime occupation    χ2=19.59*4
 Skilled professionalc612816218  
 Skilled manuald411921825  
 Semiskillede753423427  
 Unskilledf361620924  
 Noneg94566  
Most recent job within past 3 years    χ2=5.284
 Competitive1426552560  
 Transitional63324  
 Sheltered workshop21233  
 Volunteer3151  
 None673129233  
Employed full- or part-time in past 3 years1446552860χ2=1.821
Days worked, past month (M±SD)4.3±8.0 4.4±7.7 t=–.171,091
Employment income, past month (M±SD $)128.2±272.9 131.2±292.0 t=–.141,094
Public-support income, past month (M±SD $)216.6±322.2 224.2±304.8 t=–.331,092
a
Sample 1 consisted of 569 chronically homeless men from the Collaborative Initiative to Help End Chronic Homelessness (CIHC), and sample 2 consisted of 1,101 homeless male veterans in the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development—Veterans Affairs Supportive Housing (HUD-VASH) program.
b
Incarceration history is reported for the CIHC sample and criminal history is reported for the HUD-VASH sample.
c
A range of white-collar occupations, from business executives to doctors, nurses, administrative personnel, and salespersons
d
Occupations that typically require extensive training, such as baker, barber, chef, electrician, firefighter, machinist, mechanic, tailor, police, and plumber
e
Occupations that require little training, such as hospital aide, painter, bartender, bus driver, cutter, cook, drill press, security guard, waiter, and machine operator
f
Occupations that require no training, such as a janitor, attendant, construction helper, porter, and other unspecified labor
g
Unemployed, homemaker, student, disabled, or no occupation
*
p<.01, **p<.001
A model was constructed using the total CICH sample to study whether incarceration history, psychiatric disorders, and public support predicted employment variables. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was positively associated with length of longest full-time job (F=9.50, df=1 and 549, p<.01); public-support income was negatively associated with hours worked per week in the past month (F=7.60, df=1 and 560, p<.01) and employment income in the past month (F=11.07, df=1 and 560, p<.01); and public-support income (converted to $100 units) was negatively associated with any employment in past month (OR=.90, CI=.84–.97, p<.01).
Table 1 also shows the comparison between homeless male veterans with and without criminal histories in the HUD-VASH sample. Compared with veterans without a criminal history, those with a criminal history reported holding their longest full-time job for a shorter time and were less likely to report “skilled professional” as their usual lifetime occupation. Notably, 80% (N=878) of the total HUD-VASH sample reported having a usual lifetime occupation other than skilled professional; the lifetime occupation reported most frequently (N=309, 28%) was a semiskilled job. When multivariable tests controlled for differences in psychiatric diagnoses, the longest full-time job was still held for a significantly shorter period by veterans with a criminal history (F=32.72, df=1 and 1,032, p<.001, d= .41), but there was no significant difference in the odds of reporting skilled professional for lifetime occupation (OR=.66, df=1, CI=.46–.95, p=.03).
When these analyses were repeated for only white participants (N=490), the results remained the same; participants with criminal histories held their longest full-time job for a shorter period of time compared with participants without a criminal history (F=20.11, df=1 and 462, p<.001, d=.46). Among only black participants (N=521), participants with a criminal history also reported holding their longest full-time job for a shorter period compared with participants without a criminal history (F=7.85, df=1 and 483, p<.01, d=.24). There were no significant group differences by race on any other employment variables.
Using the total HUD-VASH sample, we constructed a model using criminal history, psychiatric disorders, and public support as predictors of employment variables. Criminal history was negatively associated with length of longest full-time job (F=34.93, df=1 and 1,021, p<.001). Psychotic disorder was negatively associated with length of longest full-time job (F=8.72, df=1 and 1,021, p<.01) and days worked in past month (F=10.27, df=1 and 1,022, p<.01); public-support income was negatively associated with employment income (F=47.06, df=1 and 1,029, p<.001) and days worked in past month (F=63.37, df=1 and 1,022, p<.001). Variables negatively associated with having a job longer than a month in the past three years or having any full- or part-time job in the past three years, respectively, were psychotic disorder (OR=.38, CI=.26–.56, p<.001, and OR=.49, CI=.33–.73, p<.01), personality disorder (OR=.52, CI=.36–.74, p<.001, and OR=.51, CI=.35–.74, p<.001), and public-support income (OR=.83, CI=.79–.88, p<.001, and OR=.76, CI=.72–.80, p<.001).

Discussion

This study highlights the high rates of unemployment, incarceration or criminal history, and psychiatric and substance abuse problems among homeless men, particularly those who were chronically homeless. We found that four of five chronically homeless men did not work at all in the past month. This finding underscores the need for interventions to help homeless individuals to truly reenter society and exit homelessness by obtaining employment.
Across both samples of homeless men, incarceration or criminal history was not associated with job attainment or employment earnings for black or white participants. This finding, which contrasts with findings from populations who were not homeless (1,4), may be explained, in part, by the types of jobs held by many homeless participants. In our homeless veteran sample, the majority had been skilled or unskilled manual workers, occupations that may have less strict exclusion requirements related to criminal or incarceration histories compared with more professional jobs. The low levels of employment may also be explained by psychotic disorders and public-support income, both of which were negatively associated with job attainment and earnings.
The cross-sectional nature of this study precludes inferences about causality, and there were differences in measures between samples (for example, incarceration versus criminal history), so these findings need to be interpreted with caution. Nonetheless, a body of studies has shown that people with severe mental illness experience difficulties obtaining and maintaining employment because of disruptions in their education and work history (8,13), their symptoms and cognitive deficits (9), and stigma and discrimination from employers (14,15). Given the higher rates of education and work disruptions in homeless populations, persons with severe mental illness and a history of homelessness may be particularly vulnerable to employment difficulties compared with their counterparts who are not homeless. Employment among homeless men may also be limited by a fear of losing public-support payments, but it may also be impeded by the underlying disabilities themselves, given that many public-support payments are received for health-related disabilities.
It is notable, though, that among homeless veterans, criminal history was associated with shorter duration of full-time employment for the job that they had held longest in their lifetime. This finding concerns duration of employment rather than simple job attainment, and it is unclear whether homeless veterans experienced disruptions in their work history because of their criminal history or mental health problems or whether criminal histories and mental illness made it more difficult for homeless veterans to keep a job. Further study is needed to tease out the directionality of this association.
This study relied on self-report and lacked information on the timing of criminal justice involvement and employment. Moreover, employment type was not specifically examined as an explanatory variable, and military service was not considered as employment. There were also intercorrelations and possible confounds between constructs that were not adjusted for in the analyses. Thus future studies are needed to examine these complex interactions; a longitudinal design or a design that involves potential employers would be useful for identifying barriers to the participation of homeless individuals in the workforce and devising ways to encourage better participation.

Conclusions

The study highlights the high rate of nonemployment among homeless men and the low-wage jobs held by homeless persons who are employed. A history of criminal justice involvement did not seem to have a negative effect on employment, but that may be due to the low entry requirements of the manual labor workforce. Employment among homeless men may be limited not by a criminal record but by the ability to participate in the professional workforce and by psychiatric problems.

References

1.
Huebner BM: The effect of incarceration on marriage and work over the life course. Justice Quarterly 22:281–303, 2005
2.
Western B, Kling JR, Weiman DF: The labor market consequences of incarceration. Crime and Delinquency 47:410–427, 2001
3.
Raphael S: The socioeconomic status of black males: the increasing importance of incarceration; in Public Policy and the Income Distribution. Edited by Auerbach AJ, Card D, Quigley JM. New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 2006
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Pager D, Western B, Sugie N: Sequencing disadvantage: barriers to employment facing young black and white men with criminal records. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 623:195–213, 2009
5.
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Tsai J, Rosenheck RA: Examination of Veterans Affairs disability compensation as a disincentive for employment in a population-based sample of veterans under age 65. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation 23:504–512, 2013
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Mares AS, Rosenheck RA: HUD/HHS/VA Collaborative Initiative to Help End Chronic Homelessness. West Haven, Conn, Northeast Program Evaluation Center, 2009
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Breslau J, Lane M, Sampson N, et al: Mental disorders and subsequent educational attainment in a US national sample. Journal of Psychiatric Research 42:708–716, 2008
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Stuart H: Mental illness and employment discrimination. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 19:522–526, 2006
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Information & Authors

Information

Published In

Go to Psychiatric Services
Go to Psychiatric Services

Cover: Small chest, attributed to Johannes Spitler, ca. 1800. Paint on yellow pine, poplar, and white pine with metal and wrought iron hardware. Collection American Folk Art Museum, New York City. Gift of Ralph Esmerian, 2005.8.28.

Psychiatric Services
Pages: 671 - 675
PubMed: 26766756

History

Received: 13 April 2015
Revision received: 15 June 2015
Accepted: 28 August 2015
Published online: 14 January 2016
Published in print: June 01, 2016

Authors

Details

Jack Tsai, Ph.D.
The authors are with the Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Health Care System, West Haven, Connecticut (e-mail: [email protected]).
Robert A. Rosenheck, M.D.
The authors are with the Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs New England Health Care System, West Haven, Connecticut (e-mail: [email protected]).

Competing Interests

The authors report no financial relationships with commercial interests.

Funding Information

This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs’ Health Services Research and Development Service (CDA 10-212).

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